Setting Up Hypotheses

One- and Two-Tailed Tests

Two-tailed tests look for an effect in either direction, so they compute two-tailed probabilities. They are much more common than one-tailed tests in scientific research because an outcome signifying that something other than chance is operating is usually worth noting. Some people disagree with the use of one-tailed tests except in very specific situations.
Because you are interested in the effect in either direction, you will use a two-tailed test. Thus, the null hypothesis is that the mean of the seniors is equal to the mean of the freshmen.
This question is asking you to compute a one-tailed probability. Using the binomial calculator with the values of $\mathrm{N}=22, \mathrm{p}=.5$ , and greater than or equal to 16, you get $p=.0262$ .
This question is asking you to compute a two-tailed probability. The probability that it will come up heads 8 or fewer times is.0081. Multiply that by 2 and you get p =.0162.

Callback before_footer in local_aigrade component should be migrated to new hook callback for core\hook\output\before_footer_html_generation

line 7225 of /lib/moodlelib.php: call to debugging()
line 7292 of /lib/moodlelib.php: call to {closure}()
line 71 of /lib/classes/hook/output/before_footer_html_generation.php: call to get_plugins_with_function()
line 987 of /lib/classes/output/core_renderer.php: call to core\hook\output\before_footer_html_generation->process_legacy_callbacks()
line 97 of /mod/book/tool/print/index.php: call to core\output\core_renderer->footer()