Verbal Communication

Although linguistics is the study of the structure of language, as communicators, we are interested in the role of language within the study of intercultural communication. Previously we have learned that verbal communication is a living exchange of cultural meaning. As true for many areas with communication studies, there are several basic principles important to the understanding of all verbal communication. In this section, we'll examine each principle and explore how it influences everyday communication.

Language is Arbitrary and Symbolic

Words, by themselves, do not have any inherent meaning. Humans give meaning to words, and their meanings change across time. For example, we negotiate the meaning of the word "home," and define it, through visual images or dialogue, in order to communicate with others.

Words, in turn, have two types of meanings: denotative and connotative. Attention to both is necessary to reduce the possibility of misinterpretation. The denotative meaning is the meaning often found in the dictionary. The connotative meaning is often not found in the dictionary but in the minds of the users themselves. Connotation can involve an emotional association with a word, positive or negative, and can be individual or collective, but is not universal. An example of this could be the term "rugged individualism" which comes from "rugged" or capable of withstanding rough handling, and "individualism" or being independent and self-reliant. In the United States, describing someone in this way would have a positive connotation, but for people from a collectivistic orientation, it might be the opposite.

But what if we have to transfer meaning from one language to another? In such cases, language and culture can sometimes make for interesting twists. The New York Times Sterngold, J. (11/15/98) noted that the title of the 1998 film There's Something About Mary proved difficult to translate when it was released in foreign markets. In Poland, where blonde jokes are popular and common, the film title (translated back to English for our use) was For the Love of a Blonde. In France, Mary at All Costs communicated the idea, while in Thailand My True Love Will Stand All Outrageous Events dropped the reference to Mary altogether. Capturing ideas with words is a challenge when the intended audience speaks the same language, but across languages and cultures, the challenge becomes intense.

Language Has Rules

Using any language means following rules. Constitutive rules govern the meaning of words, and dictate which words represent which objects (Searle, 1964). Regulative rules govern how we arrange words into sentences and how we exchange words in verbal conversations. If you don't know the appropriate rules, you will struggle to communicate clearly and accurately with others. Consequently, others will also struggle to find meaning in your communication.

Language Evolves

Many people view language as fixed, but in fact, language constantly changes. As time passes and technology changes, people add new words to their language, repurpose old words, and discard archaic words. New additions to American English in the last few decades include blog, sexting, and selfie. Repurposed additions to American English include cyberbullying, tweet, and app (from application). Whereas affright, cannonade, and fain are becoming extinct in modern American English.

Other times, speakers of a language borrow words and phrases from other languages and incorporate them into their own. Wisconsin, Oregon, and Wyoming were all borrowed from Native American languages. Typhoon is from Mandarin Chinese, and influenza is from Italian.

Language Shapes Our Thoughts

We know that members of a culture use language to communicate their thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values with one another, thereby reinforcing their collective sense of cultural identity. The idea that language shapes how we think about our world was first suggested by the research of Edward Sapir, who conducted an intensive study of Native American languages in the early 1900s. Sapir argues that because language is our primary means of sharing meaning with others, it powerfully effects how we perceive others and our relationships with them.

About 50 years later, Benjamin Lee Whorf expanded on Sapir's ideas in what has become known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis or what is known today as linguistic determinism. Whorf argued that we cannot conceive of that for which we lack a vocabulary or that language quite literally defines the boundaries of our thinking. More modern researchers such as Derrida, Foucault, and Anzaldua agree. In fact, Anzaldua states that "I am my language". Other modern researchers (e.g. Piaget, Pinker) have noted that linguistic determinism suggests that our ability to think is constrained by language and therefore not realistic.

Regardless, of what degree our reality is influenced by language, there is no academic question as to whether language is a major influence in our understanding of culture. Because language influences our thoughts, and different people from different cultures use different languages, most communication scholars agree that people from different cultures would perceive and think about the world in very different ways. This effect is known as linguistic relativity. Your language itself, ever changing and growing, in many ways determines your reality.

Cultural Variations in Language

If your intercultural communication is to be effective, you cannot ignore the broader cultural context that gives words meaning. Cultural rules about when and how certain speech acts can be performed may differ greatly. Routine formulas such as greetings, leave-taking, thanking, apologizing and so on do not follow the same, or even similar rules, across cultures causing misunderstandings and confusion. How language is used in a particular culture is strongly related to the values a culture emphasizes, and how it believes that the relations between humans ought to be. Lack of cultural knowledge can embarrass second language learners who produce perfectly grammatically correct language but embarrassingly inappropriate sentences.

Attitudes Towards Speaking, Silence, and Writing

In some cultures, such as the United States, speech is highly valued, and it is important to be articulate and well-spoken. People in such cultures tend to use language as a powerful tool to discover and express truth and have an impact on others. These countries tend to take silence as a sign of indifference, indignation, objection, and even hostility. Silence confuses and perplexes them since it is so different from the expected behavior. Many are even embarrassed by silence and feel compelled to fill the silence with words, so they are no longer uncomfortable. Or if a question is not answered immediately, people are concerned that the speaker may think that they do not know the answer. Countries reflecting these attitudes would include the United States, Canada, Italy, and other Western European countries.

On the flip side, silence can be a sign of respect in some Asian countries. If a person asks a question, it is polite to demonstrate that you have reflected on the question before providing an answer. In differences of opinion, it is often thought that saying nothing is better than offending the other side, which would cause both parties to lose face. The prevailing thought is that sometimes words do not convey ideas, but instead become barriers. If so, then silence can convey the real intention of the speakers and can be interpreted according to the expected possibilities and a have more profound meaning than words.

There are many reasons when silence might be appropriate. For example, in hierarchical cultures (e.g. high power distance), speaking is often the right of the most senior or oldest person, so others are expected to remain silent or only speak when spoken to and asked to corroborate information. In listening cultures, silence is a way to keep exchanges calm and orderly. In collectivistic cultures, it is polite to remain silent when your opinion does not agree with that of the group. In some African and Native American cultures, silence is seen as a way of enjoying someone's company without a need to fill every moment with noise. Or silence could simply be a case of the person having to speak in another language and taking their time to reply.

The act of writing also varies widely in value from culture to culture. In the United States written contracts are considered more powerful and binding than verbal agreements. A common question is "did you get that in writing?" The relationship between writing and speaking is an important reinforcement of commitment. Other cultures tend to value verbal communication over written communication or even a handshake over words.

Language Can Be an Obstacle

Language and verbal communication can work both for and against you in intercultural communication. Language allows you to communicate, but it can also cause misunderstanding. Clichés, jargon, and slang often present problems for intercultural communicators.

A cliché is a word or phrase that has lost impact through overuse. Sometimes clichés are considered lazy communication because people haven't bothered to find original words to convey meaning so listeners have a tendency gloss over them. Cultural clichés can also reflect stereotypes. A cliché is something that communicators "should avoid like the plague". (LOL)

Jargon is used by specialized groups to communicate to communicate efficiently. In other words, it is an occupation-specific language used by people in a particular profession. The medical professions information technology technicians, and gamers are well-known for their usage of jargon. Examples of jargon include contusion (bruise), sutures (stitches), cache (storage area), defrag (becomes quicker), AFK (away from the keyboard), and bullet sponge (hard to kill). For those on the outside of the group, jargon can cause confusion and misinformation so it's always best to use common words and avoid jargon in intercultural communication.

Most of us have heard of the term slang but probably don't realize how often we use it. Slang is the use of existing or newly invented words in particular groups. Slang differs from jargon in that it is used informally, and often changes quickly. Sometimes slang is used to tell the difference between ingroup and outgroup members. The Urban Dictionary is a great place to learn new slang.