Computer-Mediated Communication: UK and Arab Samples

The present study examined the preferences of use and comfort associated with communication styles in Arab and UK populations in online interactions. The results of our study revealed novel findings in the preferences in online communication style between two cultures that may have theoretical and practical implications for a better understanding of cross-cultural online communication.

5.1. Emerging alignment in the directness of online communication styles between cultures

A key finding of our study is that Arab participants showed a preference for direct communication, which contrasts with the view that Arab cultures generally favour an indirect communication style. This preference for directness in online communication may be partly explained by the influence of globalization and increased exposure to Western cultures, where direct communication is commonly expected. The rise of digital communication via email, social media, and instant messaging, may also play a role to facilitate more direct communications. Further, this might be also attributed to the Online Disinhibition Effect, where individuals feel less constrained by traditional social norms and hierarchies in digital spaces, enabling them to express themselves more directly. In line with this finding, the need for precision and speed in digital exchanges has been noted as a factor influencing communication practices on social media, with Arab speakers increasingly using a more direct approach, particularly in professional or formal contexts.

Not only did Arab participants in our study demonstrate a preference towards direct communication than indirect, but they also reported feeling very comfortable using this style. When individuals feel at ease with a communication approach, they are more likely to experience a sense of security and understanding. For example, Communication Accommodation Theory, suggests that people adjust their style to align with their conversational partner, either by converging to become more similar or diverging to highlight differences. Comfort can be achieved when convergence occurs, as it fosters mutual understanding, trust, and reduces social distance. This alignment helps individuals feel accepted, reducing anxiety and building trust within the interaction.

One key reason individuals may feel more comfortable using online communication, particularly direct messaging, is the sense of anonymity it provides. Anonymity reduces self-awareness and perceived social risk, allowing users to express themselves more freely without fear of judgment. According to the Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE), anonymity can shift focus from individual identity to group identity, thereby reducing personal accountability and promoting open, uninhibited communication. This effect is particularly evident in direct messaging contexts, where the absence of physical presence lowers emotional exposure and further encourages self-disclosure. In addition to anonymity, the asynchronous nature of many online platforms offers users control over the timing of their communication. This flexibility enables individuals to take more time in constructing thoughtful and deliberate responses. The Hyperpersonal Model supports this by suggesting that such control allows for careful message crafting, which can lead to more socially desirable interactions and a stronger sense of comfort for the communicator.

Our data showed that the UK sample also preferred and felt comfortable with the direct communication style in comparison to indirect, aligning with previous research on Western cultures, where communication tends to be explicit. This preference for directness may also be linked to cultural norms that prioritise efficiency and clarity in professional and social exchanges. Furthermore, the emphasis on transparency and openness in UK communication aligns with the cultural value placed on individualism and autonomy, where being clear and straightforward is seen as essential for fostering effective interactions. An interesting finding is that while individuals in the UK sample prefer directness in their own messages, they are less receptive to directness from others. This may be linked to cultural norms that value politeness and the mitigation of intimidating expressions in social interactions, where being too direct in receiving communication can be perceived as impolite or confrontational.

Taken together, the findings suggest that both Arab and UK participants not only use direct communication styles online but also feel comfortable with them, indicating a growing convergence in communication practices. This shift is likely influenced by digital platforms and globalisation, which may be bridging cultural differences in favour of clarity and efficiency in online interactions. While our findings recommend a convergence in communication styles across cultures, it is important to interpret this convergence within a critical cultural framework. Global digital platforms often reinforce dominant Western norms, particularly through English language dominance and platform design. This can pressure users from non-Western cultures to adopt communication styles that are not integrally their own.

5.2. Contrasting preferences for ordered and being-centred communication between cultures

The preference for an ordered, structured communication style among Arab individuals aligns with concept of high uncertainty avoidance, which characterizes cultures that prioritize predictability and control in social interactions. Our findings further support this by showing that Arabs are not only comfortable with structured communication used by themselves but also prefer it in messages from others. In contrast, while individuals from the UK are comfortable with structured communication, they tend to prefer using a less rigid style in their communication and in the communication by others. This finding can be explained by Communication Accommodation Theory, which suggests that individuals adjust their communication style based on social context and expectations. In cultures with a high level of uncertainty avoidance such as many Arab societies, structured communication is preferred because it helps reduces anxiety and ambiguity. Conversely, in cultures with lower uncertainty avoidance like the UK, flexibility and adaptation may be more valued to maintain conversational harmony and reduce the perception of over-formality.

Our findings show a stronger preference for being-centred communication than doing-centered communication among Arab participants. This finding is consistent with research describing Arab cultures as collectivist, where social relationships, interpersonal connections, and emotional resonance are valued more than task achievement. Moreover, Arab participants reported higher comfort levels with being-centred communication, which focuses on personal identity, social status, and the quality of interpersonal relationships. The preference and high comfort with this style were evident for both self and others, indicating a deep cultural emphasis on maintaining harmony and strengthening social bonds in communication.

UK participants, typically associated with doing-centred communication, also demonstrated a preference for being-centred communication in their online interactions. Notably, this preference was evident only in their self-use, not in others use. Furthermore, this tendency was not accompanied by a greater sense of comfort with being-centred communication. This could be attributed to the UK's individualistic culture, which prioritises task-oriented and efficiency-driven exchanges. In such contexts, people may be more likely to expect others to communicate in a doing-centred way, as it aligns with cultural norms. However, they might allow themselves more flexibility to deviate from this norm in personal or reflective online spaces, where the pressure to conform is lower.

5.3. Convergence of literate and oral communication styles in digital spaces across the cultures

Our findings showed no significant differences in the use of literate (written) and oral communication styles between Arab and UK participants, with both groups reporting similar comfort levels. This indicates that in online environments, written and spoken communication hold equal importance across cultures. The traditional distinctions in communication styles may be fading in digital environments, resulting in a more uniform communicative experience across cultures. For example, written communication in digital spaces often mimics oral conversation by incorporating informal language, emojis, and conversational pacing, which are more characteristic of spoken interaction. Similar, language use across academic disciplines often blends different styles, making it harder to stick to traditional categories. It further supports the argument that digital spaces facilitate the convergence of communication norms. This may lead to textual orality, where users write as they speak. Moreover, earlier studies showed that the brevity, informality, and visual cues like emojis are increasingly common in both personal and professional exchanges, standardising communication practices. These findings support emerging research that positions media literacy as a key facilitator of intercultural understanding in digital environments. Taken together, our data support the more uniform communicative experience across cultures, driven by the flexibility and multimodality of digital platforms, the adaptation of communication styles to suit globalized digital spaces, and the blending of oral and literate features within text-based communication.

5.4. Practical implications of the findings

The findings highlight the importance of culturally responsive communication design in both digital platforms and training environments. Given the preference for direct and ordered communication, particularly among Arab participants, platform developers should implement structured messaging templates, clear message threading, and response sequencing tools. In addition to customizable features such as tone selection, culturally sensitive emojis, and translation options, enhancing user engagement and satisfaction. Technology should also be leveraged to actively support cross-cultural collaboration. For example, communication platforms that accommodate multiple languages, time zones, and work styles through features like real-time translation, video conferencing, and asynchronous messaging, can significantly improve team dynamics. Implementing systems with integrated translation capabilities offers a practical solution for bridging language gaps and fostering more inclusive, effective communication across cultures.

Moreover, the convergence of literate and oral communication styles across cultures highlights the need for flexible, multimodal tools in digital learning platforms. Educators should design online courses that incorporate a blend of text, video, and audio to accommodate diverse cultural preferences, fostering an inclusive and engaging learning environment. For example, online group projects can combine structured tools like turn-taking features or clear discussion prompts, for those who prefer ordered communication, with flexible options. Similarly, educational platforms can support indirect communicators through features such as anonymous posting or private drafting, while giving direct communicators clear guidelines that encourage concise contributions.

The preference for being-centered communication among Arab participants suggests emphasizing interpersonal connections, while UK participants may benefit more from clarity and task-oriented feedback. These insights are essential for creating culturally sensitive and effective online educational content. Our findings also include important implications for workplace communication. Managers and professionals can adapt communication styles more effectively when working internationally by drawing on structured training and technology-enabled tools. For example, social media based training programs have been shown to successfully develop cross-cultural managerial skills by engaging employees in interactive, culturally aware exercises embedded into everyday professional practice. Similarly, case-based and experiential training approaches in organizations help employees recognize and adapt to cultural differences, improving both collaboration and trust across teams.

The preference for being-centered communication among Arab participants suggests emphasizing interpersonal connections, while UK participants may benefit more from clarity and task-oriented feedback. These insights are essential for creating culturally sensitive and effective online educational content. For example, online group projects can combine structured tools like turn-taking features or clear discussion prompts, for those who prefer ordered communication, with flexible options. Similarly, educational platforms can support indirect communicators through features such as anonymous posting or private drafting, while giving direct communicators clear guidelines that encourage concise contributions.

5.5. Limitations and future directions

Despite the strengths of the study design, certain limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings. The samples primarily consisted of frequent social media users who engage in public discussions, which may not fully represent infrequent or passive users. This could potentially affect the broader applicability of our findings. Relying on self-reported measures introduces potential biases such as social desirability and recall bias. To mitigate recall bias, participants were provided with clear definitions of each communication style, accompanied by illustrative short scenario-based examples, resembling a vignette-style experiment. To reinforce comprehension, a short quiz followed, and key terms were color-coded throughout the survey to enhance recognition and maintain consistency. Moreover, our study included samples from two countries with distinct cultural backgrounds, the UK representing individualism, and the Arab GCC representing collectivism. While we defined cultural groups based on panel preselection and self-identified ethnicity, we did not collect detailed information on participants’ residence history or degree of cultural adaptation. Future research could explore how such experiences interact with cultural identity to shape communication styles.

Nevertheless, to enhance the generalisability of our findings, it is important to include diverse cultural contexts and utilise mixed-method approaches. While the study was framed within a cross-cultural lens and participants were recruited based on their self-identification with either Arab or UK cultural norms as a selection criterion. Thus, it did not include direct measures of cultural constructs, limiting our ability to confirm that observed differences are truly cultural in nature. These differences may reflect broader contextual or technological influences. Furthermore, although the two national samples (UK and Arab GCC) provided comparative insight, they were not intended as replication samples, and the lack of a broader cultural sampling further limits generalisability. Future research should incorporate validated cultural scales and diverse cultural contexts to better isolate cultural effects. Longitudinal studies can reveal how online communication styles evolve over time, and examining the impact of emerging technologies like AI and VR can uncover new dynamics in digital communication. Furthermore, investigating communication preferences in professional settings can refine strategies for various domains, thereby enhancing global communication practices. Educational institutions and organisations should prioritise digital literacy and cross-cultural training for individuals engaging in online communication across cultures. Social communication also depends on variables not addressed in this study, including relationship closeness, power and status differences, formality, audience size, synchronicity, anonymity, and platform norms. Future research should extend the analysis to these broader social-communication variables to provide a more comprehensive account.