COMM101 Study Guide
Unit 8: Persuasive Speaking
8a. Apply common communication theories to persuasive presentations, like social judgment theory, cognitive dissonance theory, and the elaboration likelihood model
- What is Social Judgment Theory?
- What is Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
- What is the Elaboration of Likelihood Model?
- How can these theories be applied to persuasive presentations?
Social Judgment Theory, Cognitive Dissonance Theory, and the Elaboration of Likelihood Model are three concepts that can be applied to the process of persuasion.
Social Judgment Theory holds that audiences compare persuasive messages with their existing attitudes, categorizing them as falling within the latitudes of acceptance, noncommitment, or rejection. Persuasion is influenced by ego-involvement, with successful communication typically falling within the latitude of acceptance or noncommitment to avoid contrast effects. A speaker should apply Social Judgment Theory by strategically positioning their message relative to the audience's existing beliefs.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory posits that cognitive dissonance is an aversive motivational state that occurs when an individual simultaneously holds two or more contradictory attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors. This inconsistency creates a sense of psychological discomfort or tension that people are naturally driven to resolve. For example, if you believe you should be practicing your speech but choose to go to a movie instead, the conflict between your "should" and your "action" produces dissonance. The goal of a persuasive speaker is to induce enough dissonance in the listeners that they feel a need to change to restore mental harmony. By presenting new information that conflicts with the audience's current behaviors or beliefs, the speaker creates an uncomfortable gap. To close this gap, the audience is motivated to either change their behavior to match the new information or adjust their beliefs to justify their actions.
The Elaboration Likelihood Model explains how people process persuasive messages through two distinct pathways, the central route and the peripheral route. The central route involves high elaboration, meaning the audience carefully scrutinizes the speaker's logic, evidence, and arguments. This occurs when listeners are both motivated (they care about the topic) and able (they have the time and knowledge) to process the information. Persuasion through this route is generally stable and long-lasting because it is built on deep cognitive effort. The peripheral route involves low elaboration, in which listeners rely on surface-level cues rather than the message's content. These cues might include the speaker's physical attractiveness, perceived expertise, or the quality of their presentation aids. While this can lead to a quick shift in attitude, the resulting persuasion is often temporary and can be easily overturned by counterarguments. To apply this model, a speaker must evaluate the audience's motivation and ability. If the audience has a high personal stake in the topic, the speaker must prioritize strong, logical support and evidence (central route). If the audience is less engaged, the speaker should focus on their delivery and credibility (peripheral route) to capture their interest.
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8b. Identify the four types of persuasive claims
- What are the four types of persuasive claims?
- How do you define each type of persuasive claim?
- What is an example of each of the persuasive claims?
There are four primary types of persuasive claims:
- Claims of definition argue the denotation or classification of what something is. The goal is to convince the audience that a specific person, event, or thing should be categorized in a certain way. An example is arguing that a specific artistic movement should be classified as Post-Modernism rather than Modernism.
- Claims of fact argue the truth or falsity of an assertion being made about a past, present, or future state of affairs. They focus on whether something is objectively true or false. An example is arguing that "The use of plastic straws is the primary cause of ocean pollution in coastal cities".
- Claims of policy argue the nature of a problem and the specific solution that should be taken to address it. These speeches often aim for either passive agreement (getting the audience to support the policy) or immediate action (getting the audience to take action). An example is arguing that "The federal government should provide a universal basic income to all citizens".
- Claims of value argue a judgment about something, typically whether it is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral, or beautiful or ugly. They require the speaker to provide clear criteria for how they reached that evaluation. An example is arguing that "Volunteerism is more morally significant than monetary donations for community development".
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8c. Describe examples of the two types of policy claims
- What are the two types of policy claims?
- How do you define each of the policy claims?
- What is an example of each of the policy claims?
Policy claims are categorized by whether they seek passive agreement or immediate action.
In a passive agreement, the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a specific policy is desirable or necessary without asking them to take any specific physical action. The aim is simply to change or reinforce the audience's thinking on the matter. An example could be a speech arguing that "The federal government should implement a four-day work week for all non-essential employees". In this case, the speaker just wants the audience to walk away believing the policy is a good idea.
In an immediate action, the speaker goes beyond agreement and explicitly asks the audience to engage in a specific, tangible behavior to support the policy. This requires more effort from the audience and is considered a more demanding form of persuasion. An example of this could be a speech arguing that "You should go to the city council website tonight and email your representative to support the new four-day work week proposal". Here, the speaker provides a direct "to-do" list for the audience to follow immediately.
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8d. Explain common organizational patterns for persuasive speeches
- What are common organizational patterns for persuasive speeches?
- How do you define each of the organizational patterns for persuasive speeches?
- What are some examples of these organizational patterns in use?
There are three primary organizational patterns for persuasive speeches. These structures aim to effectively move an audience toward action, explain the causes of a problem, or argue for a superior solution, respectively.
- Monroe's Motivated Sequence is a five-step organizational pattern (Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, and Action) specifically designed to move an audience toward a concrete action. It mimics the natural human psychological process of problem-solving. An example is a speech asking the audience to sign up for a local community garden. The speaker grabs attention with a story about food deserts, establishes the need for fresh produce, satisfies that need with the garden proposal, helps the audience visualize a greener neighborhood, and provides a clear action step by handing out sign-up sheets.
- The problem-cause-solution pattern breaks the speech into three distinct parts: identifying a specific problem, analyzing the underlying causes of that problem, and proposing a feasible solution that directly addresses those causes. An example is a speech regarding rising city pollution. The speaker identifies the problem (dangerous air quality levels), explains the cause (outdated public transit and lack of bike lanes), and proposes the solution (a city-wide initiative to replace diesel buses with electric ones and expand cycling infrastructure).
- The comparative advantages pattern is used when the audience already agrees that a problem exists. The speaker focuses on comparing multiple solutions and argues why their proposed solution is superior to the alternatives. An example is a speech given to a school board that is already planning to buy new laptops. The speaker explains why "Model A" is better than "Model B" by comparing their costs, durability, and software capabilities to demonstrate the advantages of choosing Model A.
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8e. Evaluate the effectiveness of a persuasive speech outline
- What is the role of the persuasive speech outline?
- What criteria can we use to evaluate the effectiveness of a persuasive outline?
- What constitutes an ineffective outline?
An effective persuasive speech outline serves as a strategic, audience-centered blueprint incorporating logical organization, a balance of ethos, pathos, and logos, and credible evidence. It is evaluated by its ability to move the audience from a current stance to a desired outcome through a clear, unified structure that culminates in a specific call to action.
To evaluate the effectiveness of a persuasive outline, you must focus on argumentative structure, psychological progression, and the ethical use of evidence designed to change audience beliefs, values, or behaviors. The outline must strictly follow a recognized persuasive structure, such as Monroe's Motivated Sequence or the problem-solution structure. Each main point must build upon the previous one, such as by establishing a severe problem before introducing the specific solution. The final section must include a specific, realistic call to action telling the audience exactly what to do. The outline's core proposition must be easily identifiable as a proposition of fact, value, or policy. The thesis statement must take a definitive, non-neutral stance on an issue that has multiple viewpoints. The core claim must be narrow enough to be realistically argued and supported within the given time limit. Main points must be supported by credible data, statistics, and expert testimony rather than mere opinion. The introduction must establish the speaker's competence and character, while avoiding manipulative tactics or fallacious reasoning. The outline should integrate vivid examples, narratives, or values that tap into audience emotions without overriding logical arguments. The arguments chosen must clearly indicate whether the target audience is hostile, neutral, or supportive. The outline must explicitly identify at least one major counterargument and provide a logical rebuttal to neutralize it. The introduction or early body points must establish shared values or beliefs between the speaker and the audience.
An ineffective outline for a persuasive speech is one that fails to provide a logical, unified framework for the message. An ineffective outline might have a lack of a clear claim or thesis, logical gaps, haphazard organization, imbalanced development of main points, failure to address the need, a missing or vague call to action, or the use of a manuscript format.
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Unit 8 Vocabulary
This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.
- claims of definition
- claims of fact
- claims of policy
- claims of value
- Cognitive Dissonance Theory
- comparative advantages
- Elaboration Likelihood Model
- immediate action
- Monroe's Motivated Sequence
- Passive Agreement
- Social Judgment Theory