COMM101 Study Guide
Unit 4: Researching and Supporting Your Ideas
4a. Describe primary and secondary research
- What are the definitions of primary and secondary research?
- What are examples of primary and secondary research?
- What are the benefits of using primary and secondary research?
There are two types of research. Primary research involves directly gathering new data through methods such as surveys, interviews, and direct observation to generate original information, while secondary research involves discovering, reporting on, and analyzing information that has already been gathered and published by others, such as academic articles, books, newspapers, and magazines.
Primary research offers the speaker originality and control. You provide the audience with fresh information they cannot find anywhere else. You can tailor your questions specifically to your speech topic and your audience's interests when conducting interviews or surveys.
Secondary research is efficient because it uses existing, expert-validated data. Using secondary research sources is faster and less expensive than conducting primary research. It allows you to lean on the expertise of professionals, scientists, and historians who are respected authorities on your speech topic. Secondary research helps you understand the depth of your topic before you decide if you need to do any primary research.
Balancing both types of research creates a speech that is both expert-backed and original.
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4b. Determine research needs based on the topic and purpose of a speech
- How does a persuasive purpose change the research requirements compared to an informative one?
- Why do "technical" topics require more diverse source types?
- In what way does the audience's prior knowledge dictate the depth of your research?
Different speech assignments will require different research based on your topic, purpose, and audience. A speech with a persuasive purpose requires stronger evidence and research into counter-arguments compared to the explanation-focused research needed for informative speeches. Technical topics require diverse source types, including journals, trade magazines, and expert interviews, to translate complex concepts into relatable information. What you know about your audience's knowledge about your topic will dictate the research depth, requiring foundational information for novices and deeper, specialized data for experts. In summary, supporting research should be deep enough to withstand audience questioning but clear enough to fit the time limit of your assignment.
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4c. Describe the nature and value of academic and non-academic sources
- What makes an academic source different from a non-academic source?
- What are some examples of academic sources and nonacademic sources?
- What type of topics are academic sources best suited for?
- What type of topics are non-academic sources best suited for?
For most speaking assignments, you will need a mix of academic sources and nonacademic sources. Academic sources are written by experts, often professors or researchers with advanced degrees and professional expertise, and are produced for other experts in their field. These publications undergo a rigorous peer-review process, meaning other experts must vet the research for accuracy and methodology before publication. Some examples of academic sources include scholarly journals and books published by scholarly or university presses that focus on very specific research areas. Academic sources are best suited for topics that require high levels of credibility, specialized data, or historical depth. They are the gold standard for topics such as scientific or medical claims, complex sociological or psychological theories, in-depth historical analysis, or any speech where you need to prove a point using evidence that has been verified by the scientific or scholarly community.
Non-academic sources are written by journalists or staff writers for a general audience. These publications are designed to be easy to read and interesting to the general public. While they may be fact-checked by an editor, they do not undergo the formal peer-review process of academic work. Some examples of nonacademic sources include popular periodicals, magazines, and newspapers that you might find sold at a local news vendor or grocery store. General websites, blogs, online news sites, and organizational websites are also considered nonacademic sources. Nonacademic sources are best suited for current events, popular culture, and practical, everyday information. They are especially useful for breaking news or very recent developments that academic journals haven't had time to cover yet, human-interest stories or anecdotes to build emotional connection, simplifying complex ideas so a general audience can understand them, and identifying common knowledge or trending public opinion.
Source variety is the key to building an interesting speech.
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4d. Determine the value of sources by using specific guidelines
- What are the guidelines for evaluating the value of a source?
- How does currency impact the value of a source in the field of technology?
- What are the markers of authority for an online author?
- How does bias affect the way a speaker should use a source?
As we collect sources to support our speech assignment, it is important to evaluate each source for its authority, objectivity, currency, accuracy, and relevance.
- Authority refers to the credentials and reputation of the author or organization responsible for the information.
- Objectivity is the absence of bias or the extent that the source presents a balanced, fair-minded view on the topic.
- Currency is the timeliness of the information, ensuring it is up to date for the specific subject matter.
- Accuracy refers to the degree that the information is free from error and can be verified by other reliable sources.
- Relevance is the extent that the information is directly related to the speech topic and supports the thesis.
In rapidly changing fields like technology, currency is the most important factor because information has a very short shelf life. While a source from five years ago might be fine for a history speech, it is likely obsolete for a technology topic. For technology topics, you should aim for the most recent data available (often published within the last few months) to avoid giving the audience incorrect information that has been surpassed by newer breakthroughs.
When finding information on the internet, it is very important to verify the source's authority. Because the internet allows anyone to publish information, you must look for specific markers of authority to determine if a source is credible. These include their credentials, experience, institutional affiliation, and transparency. Does the author have an advanced degree or specialized certification in that specific field? Does the author have a documented professional history of work in the industry they are writing about? Is the author backed by a reputable university, a government agency, or a well-known professional organization? Finally, reliable authors provide a biography, a list of previous publications, and clear contact information to be transparent with their readers.
Bias is part of objectivity and refers to a source having a particular prejudice or a vested interest in a topic. Bias does not always disqualify a source, but it changes how you use it. When using a biased source, you should tell your audience if a source has a known bias. In your research process, you will need to check the biased source's claims against more neutral, objective sources. In the end, if a source is too biased, you should reconsider using it.
Evaluating sources protects you from accidentally spreading misinformation. Be sure to cross-check any information you find with other independent sources to ensure accuracy and protect your credibility as a speaker.
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4e. Use paraphrasing and summarizing for citing a source
- What is the main difference between paraphrasing and summarizing?
- Why is paraphrasing often preferred over direct quoting in a speech?
- How does a speaker orally cite a paraphrased idea?
Paraphrasing and summarizing are two techniques we use when citing sources. The main difference between paraphrasing and summarizing lies in the scope and detail of the information.
- Paraphrasing involves taking a specific, small passage or a single idea from a source and restating it entirely in your own words, usually maintaining a similar length to the original.
- Summarizing involves condensing a large amount of material, such as an entire chapter or a long article, into a much shorter, high-level overview that captures only the main points.
Paraphrasing is preferred over using direct quotations because it allows you to maintain your consistent voice throughout the speech. Direct quotes can often be clunky and use technical jargon that doesn't match your natural style. By paraphrasing, you can simplify complex language for your audience and ensure the information flows smoothly with the rest of your points. Avoiding direct quotations also keeps you from reading to your audience, thus maintaining more eye contact and credibility. Even though you are using your own words in a paraphrase, the idea still belongs to the original creator, so you must give them credit. To orally cite a paraphrase, you should include the author's name, the source (like the book or website title), and a brief mention of the original creator's credentials or the date. For example: "In her 2023 book The Communication Age, Dr. Jane Smith explains that most people only remember about half of what they hear immediately after a conversation." Successful paraphrasing shows you understand the material and that you are a credible speaker because you give proper credit to your sources.
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4f. Revise passages from a speech that display ethical issues in the use of sources
- How do you revise a passage that is taken out of context?
- What is the best way to fix a missing oral citation during a live speech?
- How can a speaker ethically use a quote from a biased source?
- What steps should a speaker take if they discover a source they used is discredited?
Maintaining honesty and credibility requires careful handling of research and citations. Some ethical issues that may require a speaker to revise their speech include any form of information dishonesty, such as plagiarism, misleading information, or disregarding the audience's needs. Plagiarism is any time the speaker uses ideas or a set of words that belong to another author without giving credit to the original author. This includes the lack of clear oral citations during a speech. Misleading information occurs when the speaker discovers that a fact is actually an opinion, or when information is exaggerated or distorted to fit a specific purpose. Disregarding the audience's needs refers to situations where the speaker finds that a passage taps into emotion rather than logic, or that it ignores significant factors or viewpoints relevant to the topic, such as using a passage solely to get a rise out of the audience rather than to genuinely support a point.
Taking evidence out of its original context, such as using only part of a quote to change its intended meaning, is a form of manipulation. To revise this, a speaker must include the qualifying statements or original surroundings of the idea to ensure the audience has an accurate view of the truth rather than a distortion.
The best way to fix a missing citation while speaking is to state the source immediately once you realize the error. Unlike a written paper, where citations appear at the end, a speech requires citing as you go. If you forget, you should pause and clarify by saying, "Earlier I mentioned a statistic about X; that data actually comes from [Author/Source] in [Date]." This will help to restore transparency and credibility.
A speaker can ethically use a biased source by disclosing the bias to the audience. For example, if using a quote from a lobbyist about the benefits of a drug, the most ethical choice is to acknowledge that the individual is a paid representative of the company. This allows the audience to make an informed decision by understanding the source's potential agenda.
If a speaker discovers a source is discredited, they have an ethical obligation to remove or replace it. Speakers should not knowingly use evidence from a source that is clearly biased or no longer supported. If the discovery occurs right before a speech, the speaker must either find a new, authoritative source to support the claim or remove the claim entirely to avoid deceiving their audience.
Ethical revision is about transparency with your audience. Ethical revision also means ensuring the source's original intent remains intact.
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4g. Describe three reasons and four criteria for using support in speeches
- What are the three reasons for using support in speeches?
- What are the four criteria for using support in speeches?
- Why is it important to meet all three reasons in a speech?
Supporting resources provide the content of your speech assignment. Rarely are we experts on the topic for a classroom speech assignment. Even when experts make presentations, they still rely on supporting evidence to make their points. There are three reasons and four criteria for using support materials in speeches.
The three reasons to use support are to clarify content, to add credibility, and to add vividness or interest. You should attempt to meet all three reasons as you collect and include support in your speech. If you only use support as proof (credibility), your audience may find your material dry and may perceive you as talking over them. If you rely heavily on using support to add vividness, your audience may remember your speech as being more fluff than substance.
The four criteria for using support in speeches are similar to the guidelines we use when selecting our sources: accuracy, authority, currency, and objectivity. These criteria function as your evidence filter as you select the best support for your points. It is important to use a variety of types of support to meet your audience's needs. Different audience members will be moved by different pieces of evidence.
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4h. Describe the five types of supporting materials as used in a speech
- What are the five types of supporting materials?
- What are some examples of the types of supporting materials?
- What makes a testimonial different from a narrative?
There are five types of supporting materials that we use in speeches.
- Definitions explain the meaning of a word or concept to ensure audience understanding. Examples of definitions are using a dictionary definition of the term cyberbullying or explaining a technical biology term like mitosis.
- Examples are specific instances or cases used to illustrate a general claim or make it more concrete. For example, mentioning a specific person like Steve Jobs to illustrate the concept of a visionary leader.
- Narratives are stories or anecdotes that create an emotional connection or illustrate a point. Examples of narratives include telling your audience a three-minute story about a time you got lost in a foreign country to highlight the importance of learning local customs.
- Statistics are numerical data used to summarize large amounts of information or to show trends. An example of using statistics to support a point would be stating that "1 in 4 Americans suffers from a diagnosable mental disorder" to emphasize the scope of a health issue. Of course, we would also cite the source of that statistic to maintain our credibility.
- Testimony refers to personal or expert accounts used to provide a specific perspective on a topic. To use a testimony, we could quote a climate scientist (expert) on rising sea levels or share a student's quote (peer) about the difficulty of finding a summer internship.
Testimonials and narratives sound similar, but are very different. The primary difference is structure and intent. A narrative is a story with a beginning, middle, and end; its goal is to engage the audience through a sequence of events. A testimonial is an opinion or statement of fact from a source; its goal is to provide credibility or validation for a specific claim. While a narrative might include testimony, a testimonial is often just a short quote or endorsement rather than a full story.
In summary, using a variety of these types of supporting materials keeps the speech engaging for all listening styles in your audience. Be sure to cite your sources orally when using secondary sources.
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4i. Evaluate the effective use of each type of supporting materials
- How can we evaluate the effectiveness of each type of supporting materials?
- What makes a statistic ineffective for an audience?
- Why is it good practice to follow a definition with an example?
- What are the signs of weak testimony?
It is important to evaluate the effective use of your support materials to ensure they indeed add value to your speech. The effectiveness of definitions is based on clarity and necessity. A definition is effective if it clarifies a term that is potentially confusing to the audience without being overly simplistic or using a dictionary definition for a word everyone already knows.
The key to evaluating examples is representativeness. An example is effective if it is typical of the phenomenon you are describing. If you use a freak accident as an example of a common safety risk, it is considered ineffective because it is an outlier rather than a representative instance.
The effectiveness of a narrative is judged by probability (does the story hang together) and fidelity (does the story ring true to the audience's lived experience). A story that feels forced or unbelievable will fail to engage the audience emotionally.
Statistics are evaluated based on reliability and recency. You must ensure the data comes from a neutral, reputable source and that the numbers are not outdated. Effective statistics should also be translated into terms the audience can visualize. A statistic becomes ineffective when it is abstract, overwhelming, or lacks context for the audience to understand.
The primary criteria for testimonials are credibility and bias. For expert testimony, the person must be a recognized authority in that specific field. For peer testimony, the person must have actual first-hand experience with the topic. In both cases, the testimony is less effective if the source has a vested interest (bias) in the topic.
It is a good practice to follow a definition with an example. Definitions are often abstract or technical, which can leave an audience feeling confused even if the literal meaning is explained. Following a definition with an example is good practice because it anchors the abstract concept in reality. While a definition tells the audience what a thing is, the example shows them how it functions or what it looks like in the real world. This dual approach ensures that the audience not only hears the term but truly understands its application.
There are several signs that indicate a testimony is weak or unreliable. The most common sign of weak testimony is using a well-known person to speak on a topic where they have no actual professional training or expertise. Another sign is when the person giving the testimony has a clear vested interest in the outcome. If the quote has been out of context or edited in a way that misrepresents the original author's full argument, it is considered weak and ethically questionable. In fields that change quickly, such as medicine or technology, testimony from ten years ago is often considered weak because it no longer reflects current practice.
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Unit 4 Vocabulary
This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.
- academic sources
- accuracy
- authority
- currency
- definitions
- examples
- narratives
- nonacademic sources
- objectivity
- paraphrasing
- plagiarism
- primary research
- relevance
- secondary research
- statistics
- summarizing
- testimony