COMM101 Study Guide

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Study Guide Structure

In this study guide, the sections in each unit (1a., 1b., etc.) are the learning outcomes of that unit. 

Beneath each learning outcome are:

• questions for you to answer independently;
• a brief summary of the learning outcome topic; and
• and resources related to the learning outcome. 

At the end of each unit, there is also a list of suggested vocabulary words.

How to Use this Study Guide

1. Review the entire course by reading the learning outcome summaries and suggested resources.
2. Test your understanding of the course information by answering questions related to each unit learning outcome and defining and memorizing the vocabulary words at the end of each unit.

By clicking on the gear button on the top right of the screen, you can print the study guide. Then you can make notes, highlight, and underline as you work.

Through reviewing and completing the study guide, you should gain a deeper understanding of each learning outcome in the course and be better prepared for the final exam!

Unit 1: The Speech Communication Process

1a. Identify the three most common types of public speaking

• What are the three most common types of public speaking?
• What makes informative speaking different from persuasive speaking?
• What are examples of each of the three common types of public speaking?

The three most common types of public speaking include speaking to inform, speaking to persuade, and speaking to entertain.

Informative speaking (speaking to inform) focuses on expanding the audience's knowledge and understanding in a fair and balanced way. An example of an informative speech includes presenting the history of the internet.

Persuasive speaking (speaking to persuade) focuses on changing listeners' beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. An example of a persuasive speech includes one in which you argue that college athletes should be paid.

Speaking to entertain uses humor or emotion to convey a theme while delivering a message. An example of a speech intended to entertain is a toast at your parents' anniversary celebration. Identifying the type of speech you are preparing early in the assignment process will ensure alignment of your research and organizational tasks in the speech preparation process.

Review

To review, see:

• Public Speaking in the Twenty-First Century
• Why Is Public Speaking Important?
• Benefits of Studying Public Speaking

1b. Apply the dialogical theory of public speaking

• What is the dialogical theory of public speaking?
• What are the three principles of the dialogical theory?
• What are some examples of the application of the three principles of dialogical theory?

The dialogical theory of public speaking posits that public speaking should be viewed as a dialogue between the speaker and the listeners, even though the listeners often have limited feedback. The three principles that the dialogical theory is built on are:

1. Dialogue is more natural than monologue
2. Meanings are in people, not words
3. Contexts and social situations affect perceived meanings

Here are some examples of these principles in action. If you are giving a speech and audience members are nodding in agreement. Those nonverbal cues of nodding heads are a form of feedback that creates a dialogue between you and your audience.

As speakers, we must be mindful that the language that we use could be interpreted differently by different people. So we need to choose our words wisely to avoid confusion. As we consider context and social situations, we might consider how the time of day or the news of the day may affect how our message is received. If you give a speech at lunch time, your audience may be too distracted by their hunger to attend to your message. The dialogical theory encourages speakers to view public speaking as a two-way form of communication with limited feedback from the receivers. By being mindful of our audience during preparation and delivery, we can improve how our message is received and acted upon.

Review

To review, see:

• The Process of Public Speaking
• Communication as a Cycle

1c. Use the ethics pyramid to evaluate the ethical choices of a public speaker or listener

• What are the three levels of the ethics pyramid?
• How can a public speaker use the ethics pyramid when preparing their speech?
• How can a listener apply the ethics pyramid to evaluate a speaker's message?

The ethics pyramid is a structured approach to evaluating the ethical content of messages. The model is used to evaluate communication through three levels: intent (the base), means (the middle), and ends (the top). Intent is the foundation for determining ethical behavior. Means are the behaviors used to achieve a goal. Ends are the desired outcomes or results.

A speaker uses the pyramid as a preparatory framework to ensure their message is ethically sound from the ground up – intent, means, and ends. The speaker begins by examining their underlying purpose. They must ask, "Is my goal to inform honestly or to influence or coerce?" For example, a student speaking on financial aid should aim to help classmates, not shame those in financial need. Then the speaker evaluates the tools and behaviors they might use to deliver the message. This involves choosing good means, such as using accurate research and fair language, over bad means, such as using distorted statistics or name-calling to win an argument. Finally, the speaker considers the potential outcomes of the speech for both themselves and the audience. An ethical speaker strives for results that are beneficial or at least not harmful to listeners, even if those results also serve the speaker's own goals.

As listeners, we apply the pyramid as an evaluative tool to critically analyze the message a speaker delivers – from intent to means to ends. Before forming a judgment, an ethical listener starts with the intention of being open-minded and letting the speaker make their case. They look for signs of the speaker's true purpose, such as whether the speaker is providing balanced information or appears to have a hidden agenda. Then the listener analyzes the speaker's methods. For instance, they might check whether the speaker cited their sources or used emotional manipulation through altered images or shocking stories. Finally, the listener weighs the proposed outcome. They ask themselves, "Who benefits from this message?" and "Would I approve of this behavior if the roles were reversed?"

Applying the ethics pyramid ensures ethics are considered at each stage of the communication process, both as a speaker and a listener.

Review

To review, see:

• Understanding the Ethics of Public Speaking
• The Ethics Pyramid
• Ethics in Public Speaking

1d. List some physiological symptoms of communication apprehension

• What is communication apprehension?
• What are some physiological symptoms of communication apprehension?
• How would you define the physiological symptoms of communication apprehension?

Communication apprehension is the fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with another person or group, such as in public speaking. Fear of public speaking is a very common fear among people. The physiological symptoms of communication apprehension are the body's "fight-or-flight" response to perceived social threats, which can cause physical sensations such as a pounding heart, rapid breathing, shaking, sweating, a dry mouth, a quivering voice, rapid speech, and nausea. Speakers often feel these symptoms are obvious to everyone, even though they are usually invisible to the audience. These reactions represent a natural physical response to adrenaline that prepares the body for action despite the stillness required in public speaking. Identifying these symptoms as physical reactions to adrenaline can help you reframe them as excitement rather than fear.

Review

To review, see:

• What Is Communication Apprehension?
• Sources of Communication Apprehension

1e. Describe the four types of communication apprehension

• What are the four most common types of communication apprehension?
• How do you define each of the four types of communication apprehension?
• What is an example of each of the four types of communication apprehension?

The four types of communication apprehension include trait anxiety, context anxiety, audience anxiety, and situational anxiety.

Trait anxiety defines communication apprehension as a personality trait. Regardless of what situation you are in – speaking to a small group of friends or in front of a classroom of peers, you experience anxiety regarding the communication transaction.

Context anxiety is defined by the type of setting where a person is speaking. You might be comfortable speaking with groups of friends, but when prompted to speak at a formal gathering, you may feel anxious.

Audience anxiety is associated with who you are speaking to, who is in the audience. We might experience audience anxiety if we are required to speak to an audience of experts or authority figures, like at a board meeting.

Situational anxiety occurs when we are confronted by a unique combination of factors and is generated by the audience, time, and context. For example, let's say you are not normally anxious about public speaking, until you have to make a speech of introduction about your boss at a large international conference just before lunchtime; you may feel more anxious about making that speech due to some contributing factors – impressing your boss, the size of the audience, and your perception of the hungry audience.

Understanding your specific communication anxiety type allows you to apply more targeted coping strategies.

Review

To review, see:

• Sources of Communication Apprehension
• Communication Apprehension
• Reducing Communication Apprehension

1f. Select effective techniques for coping with anxiety and stress before and during a presentation

• What is cognitive restructuring?
• How does visualization help with anxiety and stress related to making a presentation?
• What is systematic desensitization?
• What are some during-speech techniques for coping with anxiety?

Four effective techniques for coping with anxiety and stress related to making a public presentation include cognitive restructuring, visualization, systematic desensitization, and during-speech techniques.

Simply put, cognitive restructuring involves replacing negative thoughts with positive ones. You might think of it as positive self-talk. An example would be pushing negative thoughts of failure with positive ones about how well you are going to do in your presentation.

Visualization means imagining yourself delivering your speech successfully. By doing so, you train your brain to see a successful outcome, thus reducing the fear of the unknown.

Systematic desensitization involves incremental exposure to speaking tasks while practicing relaxation techniques. An example of this would be watching others engage in public speaking, then preparing your speech materials, practicing your speech in a mirror with yourself, then practicing your speech with a small group of friends, before making your formal presentation in your speech classroom.

During-speech techniques include relaxation strategies you can use during your presentation to reduce anxiety. They include simple acts like taking a deep breath between statements, pausing to drink a few sips of water, practicing supporting gestures, and focusing on the audience's needs rather than your self-evaluation. Including positive reminders in your speaking notes can also help you during your presentation.

Managing anxiety is a combination of mental preparation and physical regulation. Practicing these techniques will help you reduce your stress and anxiety associated with public speaking.

Review

To review, see:

• Communication Apprehension
• Reducing Communication Apprehension
• Trick Your Brain with Cognitive Restructuring

Unit 1 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• audience anxiety
• cognitive restructuring
• communication apprehension
• context anxiety
• dialogical theory of public speaking
• during-speech techniques
• ends
• ethics pyramid
• intent
• means
• situational anxiety
• speaking to entertain
• speaking to inform
• speaking to persuade
• systematic desensitization
• trait anxiety
• visualization

Unit 2: Audience Analysis and Effective Listening

2a. Describe ways to establish credibility based on a specific audience's traits

• How can a speaker use demographic information to establish credibility?
• How does psychographic analysis help a speaker appear more trustworthy?
• In what way does situational analysis impact perceived expertise?
• How can a speaker establish credibility by addressing audience knowledge levels?

As part of the speech creation process, speakers conduct research – both on their chosen topic and on their audience. An audience analysis is the speaker's research regarding the group of people who they will make their presentation to. This analysis includes understanding who will receive your message. What do they already know about your topic, and what do they need to know about your topic, as well as their needs and values, and how the situation where you are presenting might affect their interpretation of your message? A speaker can use what they know about their audience to build their credibility – the perception that the speaker is an honest, knowledgeable, and ethically motivated source of information.

A speaker can use demographic information to establish credibility with their audience by tailoring the content of their presentation to acknowledge the demographic variables of their audience. Demographics are characteristics about a group that you can easily observe, such as age, gender, or occupation. Credibility is built when you avoid stereotypes and show that you have considered the specific life experiences and diversity of the people in the audience.

Psychographic analysis can help a speaker appear more trustworthy. Psychographics are the psychological variables that help you understand how an audience thinks. By identifying the audience's values, beliefs, and attitudes, a speaker can align their message with what the audience already finds important. When a speaker demonstrates that they share or respect the audience's values, the audience is more likely to perceive the speaker as someone who understands their perspective.

The situation where we engage with our audience also affects our credibility as a speaker. As part of our audience analysis, we also conduct situation analysis by examining the occasion and environment where the presentation is made. By adapting to the physical environment and the occasion, the speaker shows the audience that they are prepared and professional. For example, if the speaker acknowledges the specific reason the audience is gathered or adjusts their delivery to accommodate a large room, they demonstrate situational competence and respect for the audience's time.

A speaker can establish their credibility by addressing audience knowledge levels by accurately gauging the audience's prior knowledge of a topic. If you talk down to your audience with overly simple information, you lose credibility. Speaking to your audience's knowledge level shows that you have done the work to make the content relevant and accessible for them.

Review

To review, see:

• What Is an Audience Analysis?
• Why Conduct an Audience Analysis?
• Three Types of Audience Analysis
• Conducting Audience Analysis
• Using Your Audience Analysis
• Audience Analysis

2b. Explain the influence that demographic, psychographic, and situational information has on understanding your audience

• How do psychographics provide a deeper understanding of an audience than demographics alone?
• What specific adjustments should a speaker make based on the situational factor of time of day?
• How can a speaker use demographic data to find common ground?
• In what way does an audience's attitude toward a topic dictate the speaker's choice of arguments?

Demographic, psychographic, and situational information from our audience analysis will influence how we craft and deliver our messages. Psychographics cover internal beliefs, values, and attitudes, while demographics cover external traits such as age and gender. By focusing on values, beliefs, and attitudes, a speaker can understand the reasons behind an audience's behavior and predict how they might react to a specific message, which demographic data alone cannot do.

Situational factors include the occasion you are speaking at and the presentation environment. If you are making a speech to an audience in the morning, you may need to summon more energy in your delivery to engage your audience with your message. If you are speaking to a late-afternoon audience, you may need to be more concise because they may be concerned about beating the evening rush-hour traffic.

Demographics can be used to establish common ground with your audience by identifying shared experiences or values, helping you build a bridge between you and your audience. Part of a good audience analysis is gaining some insight into your audience's pre-existing opinions or attitudes about your topic.

If an audience is hostile, then you must find some shared values before moving to your main claim, which might require some negotiation with your audience. In the end, effective analysis requires balancing who the people are (demographics) with how they think (psychographics), which will lead to a speech that resonates with the audience.

Review

To review, see:

• What Is an Audience Analysis?
• Why Conduct an Audience Analysis?
• Three Types of Audience Analysis
• Conducting Audience Analysis
• Using Your Audience Analysis
• Audience Analysis

2c. Describe different listening styles

• What are the four common listening styles?
• How would you define the four common listening styles?
• What is an example of each of the common listening styles?
• Why is it important for a speaker to understand the four listening styles?

Listening is an important part of the communication process. There are four common listening styles: people-oriented, action-oriented, content-oriented, and time-oriented.

Listeners who are people-oriented primarily focus on the speaker's feelings and emotional state. They listen to build or maintain a relationship. An example of this type of listening style occurs when a friend listens to another friend vent about a bad day, focusing on the venting friend's emotions.

Listeners who are action-oriented focus on tasks, and they want to know what the speaker wants them to do with the information. They prefer organized, direct messages. An example of this type of listening style occurs when a manager interrupts a briefing to ask, "Okay, so what are the three steps we need to take next?"

Listeners who are content-oriented focus on the meaning and credibility of the message itself. They enjoy complex information and analyzing the speaker's logic. An example of this type of listening style occurs when a judge, listening to a court case, carefully weighs the facts and evidence provided by both sides.

Finally, time-oriented listeners focus on efficiency and time limits. They value brevity and get frustrated by long-winded stories. An example of this type of listening style occurs when a busy executive looks at their watch while a presenter is only halfway through their introduction.

As a speaker, it is important to understand your audience's listening styles, because they are almost always a mix of all four. If a speaker only caters to one style, they risk losing the interest or trust of the other audience members. By understanding these styles, a speaker can adapt their delivery to ensure the message reaches everyone in the room. This can be done, for example, by providing clear action items, sharing a relatable story, citing facts, and staying on schedule.

Review

To review, see:

• Listening versus Hearing
• Listening Styles

2d. Apply methods to eliminate types of noise that can affect a listener's ability to attend to a message

• What are the common types of noise?
• How do you define each type of noise?
• What is an example of each type of noise?
• What are some examples of methods to eliminate each type of noise?

Communication transactions are not perfect. Noise is any barrier between the sender and the receiver of the message. There are four common types of noise: physical, psychological, physiological, and semantic.

Physical noise includes external sounds or environmental factors that distract the listener. An example of physical noise is a loud construction crew working outside the classroom window while you are trying to listen to a lecture.

Psychological noise includes internal mental or emotional distractions, such as personal worries or prejudices, that prevent a listener from focusing on the message. Being unable to focus on a speech because you are worried about a difficult exam you have in the next hour is an example of psychological noise.

Physiological noise includes distractions caused by the listener's own body or physical state. Trying to listen to a presentation while you have a splitting headache or an extremely hungry stomach is an example of physiological noise.

Semantic noise is the confusion that occurs when a listener doesn't understand the speaker's words, like jargon or slang. An example of semantic noise is when a physician uses highly technical medical terms that a patient doesn't understand, causing the patient to stop following the conversation.

We can expect noise in our conversations and public presentations. Here are some common methods to eliminate or control each type of noise based on the examples above. To eliminate physical noise, we can close the door or window or move the speech to a quieter location.

To eliminate psychological noise, you can practice active listening (the process of purposeful, intentional, and motivated listening where the listener strives to understand a speaker's message, distinct from the involuntary act of hearing) by taking notes to force your mind to stay on the topic and set aside personal biases. To eliminate physiological noise, you can address your physical needs before the speech (eat a snack, drink water, or take an aspirin for a headache).

To eliminate semantic noise, speakers should define their terms clearly and avoid unnecessary jargon; listeners should ask clarifying questions if they are confused. Successful communication transactions depend on the speaker and listener being proactive in reducing these barriers to communication.

Review

To review, see:

• Why Listening Is Difficult
• Barriers to Effective Listening

2e. List the characteristics associated with each stage of listening

• What are the stages of listening as a process?
• What are the characteristics associated with each stage of listening?
• What is an example of the listening process in action?

Listening is an active, physical, and mental process, not a passive one. The process of listening includes the following distinct stages.

• Receiving is the intentional focus on hearing the speaker's message while filtering out background noise. It is the physiological start of the process.
• Understanding involves decoding the speaker's message; the listener attempts to learn its meaning and grasp the speaker's intended point.
• Remembering is the ability to retain information for later use. It is often influenced by how well the listener organized the information during the understanding stage.
• Evaluating occurs when the listener judges the message. They assess the speaker's credibility, the argument's logic, and whether the information is biased or truthful.
• Responding is the feedback stage. It includes nonverbal cues (such as nodding) and verbal responses (such as asking questions) that indicate to the speaker how the message was received.

Here is an example of the listening process in action. Imagine you are attending a financial literacy workshop. During the receiving stage, you tune out the hum of the air conditioner to focus solely on the presenter's voice. During the understanding stage, when the speaker mentions compound interest, you connect it to your knowledge of savings accounts to grasp how it works. During the remembering stage, you take a mental note (or write down) the specific formula the speaker gave so you can use it when you get home. During the evaluating stage, you consider whether the speaker's advice is realistic for your current budget or if they are just trying to sell you a specific bank's credit card. During the responding stage, at the end of the presentation, you nod to show you followed the logic and ask a specific follow-up question about high-yield savings accounts.

As you can see, listening is a sequential process; a failure at one stage prevents success at the next. We often pass through the stages of listening quickly, or we process a speaker's message and are expected to make a response before starting the process again.

Review

To review, see:

• Stages of Listening

2f. Recommend ways to improve critical listening habits

• What is critical listening?
• What are six techniques for improving critical listening?
• What are examples of each of the techniques for improving critical listening?

Critical listening is the process of using careful, systematic thinking and reasoning to see whether a message makes sense in light of factual evidence. It's about being an active judge of the message rather than a passive receiver.

There are six techniques for improving critical listening. The first is to recognize the difference between facts and opinions. If a speaker says, "The university increased tuition by 5% this year", that is a fact you can verify. If they say, "The tuition hike was a greedy move by the administration", that is an opinion. A critical listener separates the data from the speaker's feelings. The second technique is to uncover assumptions given by the speaker. If a speaker argues that we should ban plastic straws to save the ocean, they are assuming that plastic straws are a primary cause of ocean pollution. A critical listener identifies that unspoken assumption to see if it holds up. The third technique is to be open to new ideas. If you strongly dislike a specific politician but listen to their speech with the intent of understanding their actual proposal rather than just waiting to disagree, you are practicing openness. The fourth technique is to rely on reason and common sense. If a speaker claims a new supplement will help you lose 20 pounds in two days, a critical listener uses reason to realize this is biologically impossible and likely too good to be true. The fifth technique is to relate new ideas to old ones. When a speaker explains a complex technical concept like bandwidth, you might relate it to a familiar concept like a highway, where more lanes (bandwidth) allow more cars (data) to pass through at once. The sixth technique is to take notes. Instead of trying to write every word the speaker says, a critical listener writes down key phrases and supporting evidence. For instance, noting "Source: 2022 Census data" next to a statistic helps you evaluate the credibility later. Critical listening can be a difficult process to master, but the most rewarding type of active listening.

Review

To review, see:

• Listening Critically

Unit 2 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• action-oriented
• active listening
• audience analysis
• content-oriented
• critical listening
• evaluating
• listening
• people-oriented
• physical noise
• physiological noise
• psychographics
• psychological noise
• receiving
• remembering
• semantic noise
• situation analysis
• time-oriented
• understanding
• responding

Unit 3: Preparing for a Speech Assignment

3a. Identify the general purpose of a speech

• What are the three general purposes?
• What are the definitions of the general purposes?
• What are some examples of general purposes?
• At what point in the speech creation process should a speaker identify the general purpose of their speech?

The general purpose of a speech is the broad goal of the speech. There are three general purposes for public speaking: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.

Speeches to inform aim to educate an audience. Some examples of speeches with the general purpose to inform include a presentation about a new strain of the flu, demonstrating a skill like swinging a golf club, or explaining airport security protocols.

Speeches to persuade focus on convincing the audience to take a side on an issue or change a behavior. Some examples of speeches with the general purpose to persuade include encouraging consumers to purchase a specific product, urging students to protest a tuition increase, and encouraging people to engage in healthier eating habits.

Speeches to entertain use humor or emotion to share a message with an audience. Some examples of speeches with the general purpose to entertain include wedding toasts and eulogies that share stories to honor a loved one.

A speaker must identify the general purpose of their speech during the first stage of the speech creation process when they determine their speech topic. The general purpose is the "why" that guides every other decision in the speech creation process.

Review

To review, see:

• Finding Your Purpose
• General Purposes of Speaking

3b. Describe common forms of informative, persuasive, and entertaining speeches

• What are the different categories used for informative speech topics?
• What are the different types of persuasive speeches?
• What are some common forms of entertaining speeches?

Speeches that subscribe to each of the general purposes come in a number of different forms or typologies.

Informative speeches are categorized by subject matter.

• Object-oriented speeches are about tangible things, such as animals, places, or products.
• People-oriented speeches focus on specific individuals or groups, often highlighting their contributions or life stories.
• Event-oriented speeches are about occurrences, whether historical, current, or future.
• Concept-oriented speeches explain abstract ideas, theories, or philosophies.
• Process-oriented speeches, also called how-to or demonstration speeches, explain a series of actions that lead to a specific result.
• Issue-oriented speeches address a point of controversy or a matter in dispute, with the goal of explaining the issue objectively rather than taking a side.

Persuasive speeches are categorized by the type of claim or proposition being made: pure persuasion, propaganda, claims of fact, claims of value, and claims of policy. Pure persuasion occurs when a speaker urges an audience to change their minds or behaviors about a topic where there is no clear right or wrong choice. Propaganda is a controversial type of persuasion that uses biased or misleading information to promote a particular cause or point of view. Claims of fact persuade the audience that something is or is not true. Claims of value persuade the audience that something is good/bad, right/wrong, or better/worse than something else. Claims of policy persuade the audience that a specific action should or should not be taken.

Entertaining speeches are usually defined by the occasion they are delivered at, such as after-dinner speeches, ceremonial speeches, and inspirational speeches. After-dinner speeches are lighthearted remarks delivered after a formal meal, often aligned with the event's theme. Ceremonial speeches include speeches given as part of a ceremony, such as introductions, toasts, roasts, and eulogies. Inspirational speeches are designed to motivate or uplift the audience emotionally, such as a commencement address.

Understanding these forms will help you choose the right direction for your speech assignment.

Review

To review, see:

• Finding Your Purpose
• General Purposes of Speaking
• What If You Draw a Blank?

3c. Select appropriate specific purpose statements

• What are the three components of a specific purpose statement?
• Why must a specific purpose statement be phrased as an infinitive?
• How does the target audience influence the wording of this statement?
• What are some examples of specific purpose statements?

A specific purpose statement is a concise, single-sentence phrase that states precisely what the speaker hopes to accomplish in their speech. It builds on the general purpose (to inform, persuade, or entertain) by narrowing the focus to a specific topic and goal.

A well-written specific purpose statement must include these three elements: the general purpose, the audience, and the objective. Specific purpose statements are phrased as an infinitive (a verb preceded by the word "to", such as "to explain") because it is an action-oriented statement. Using an infinitive forces the speaker to define the specific action they will take to achieve their goal, ensuring the statement remains a clear roadmap for the speech rather than a vague idea.

The target audience influences the wording of the specific purpose statement because they are the central focus of the speech. A speaker must tailor the wording to match the audience's knowledge level, interests, and demographics. The wording ensures the goal is relevant and accessible to that specific group.

Here are some examples of specific purpose statements:

• To inform my classmates about the history of jazz in New Orleans.
• To persuade my local city council members to implement a mandatory plastic bag ban.
• To entertain my cousin's wedding guests by sharing three humorous stories about our childhood adventures.

The specific purpose statement is an important part of the speech creation process.

Review

To review, see:

• Specific Purposes

3d. Explain the functions of an outline for a public presentation

• What are the functions of an outline?
• How does an outline test the scope of content?
• How does an outline help a speaker assess the logical relationships between ideas?
• How does an outline help evaluate the relevance of supporting ideas?

The basic functions of a speech outline are to test the scope of content, assess logical relationships between ideas, and evaluate the relevance of supporting ideas.

An outline tests the scope of content of a speech by allowing you to visually compare the weight of your main points. If your first main point has six sub-points and your second main point only has one, the outline reveals that the scope is unbalanced. You can then decide to either find more information for the second point or narrow the first point to keep the speech proportional.

An outline helps a speaker assess the logical relationships among ideas by using indentation and symbols (such as Roman numerals for main points and capital letters for subpoints). The outline forces you to show which ideas are superior and which are subordinate. This hierarchy makes it clear whether a sub-point actually belongs under a specific main point or if the sequence of ideas is out of order.

An outline helps you evaluate the relevance of supporting ideas in your speech. When you place a piece of evidence (a statistic, quote, or example) directly under a sub-point in an outline, you can easily see if it directly supports that claim. If the evidence doesn't clearly explain the point it is under, the outline makes that lack of relevance stand out, allowing you to cut or move it.

A speech outline also serves as a blueprint, helping you stay organized during both the writing and delivery phases. In summary, outlining is the bridge between your research and your final performance.

Review

To review, see:

• Why Outline?

3e. Describe the three types of outlines: working outline, full-sentence outline, and speaking outline

• What are the three types of speech outlines?
• What is the purpose of each of the types of speech outlines?
• Why should a speaker avoid using a full-sentence outline at the podium?

There are three types of speech outlines: working outline, full-sentence outline, and speaking outline. Each serves a different purpose in the speech development process.

1. The purpose of the working outline is to serve as a rough map for organizing your ideas. It is a tool that helps you lay out your main points and sub-points as you first begin to structure your research and thoughts.
2. A full-sentence outline provides a complete blueprint of your speech. By writing every point in full sentences, you can accurately track your time, test the logical flow of your arguments, and ensure that every claim is properly supported by evidence.
3. A speaking outline serves as a delivery aid. It uses brief keywords and phrases to prompt your memory while you are on stage, ensuring you don't read your speech word-for-word and can maintain eye contact with your audience.

A speaker should not use a full-sentence outline at the podium when delivering a speech, as it only encourages reading from the page, which destroys eye contact and vocal variety. It also reduces the speaker's credibility.

Each outline serves a specific stage of the speech creation process: planning (working outline), checking (full-sentence outline), and performing (speaking outline).

Review

To review, see:

• Types of Outlines

3f. Identify the five principles of outline creation: singularity, consistency, adequacy, uniformity, and parallelism

• What does the principle of singularity require of each outline point?
• How does parallelism improve an audience's ability to remember points?
• What is the difference between consistency and uniformity in an outline?
• How do you determine if you have met the principle of adequacy?

There are five principles of outline creation: singularity, parallelism, consistency, uniformity, and adequacy.

1. The principle of singularity ensures that each point or sub-point within an outline contains only one distinct idea.
2. The principle of parallelism ensures that by using similar grammatical structures for main points, this makes them predictable and easy for the audience to remember.
3. The principle of consistency focuses on maintaining a focused and stable approach throughout the speech, primarily by ensuring the entire outline stays aligned with a single, clear thesis statement.
4. The principle of uniformity requires the consistent use of grammatical structure and formatting throughout an outline.
5. The principle of adequacy requires providing sufficient support for claims through necessary definitions and high-quality evidence. This rule ensures the audience understands the message by requiring at least two sub-points to thoroughly support the main points.

These principles ensure your speech outline is logically sound and easy for the brain to process.

Review

To review, see:

• Using Outlining for Success

Unit 3 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• adequacy
• after-dinner speeches
• ceremonial speeches
• claims of fact
• claims of policy
• claims of value
• concept-oriented speeches
• consistency
• event-oriented speeches
• full-sentence outline
• general purpose
• inspirational speeches
• issue-oriented speeches
• object-oriented speeches
• parallelism
• people-oriented speeches
• process-oriented speeches
• propaganda
• pure persuasion
• singularity
• speaking outline
• specific purpose statement
• uniformity
• working outline

Unit 4: Researching and Supporting Your Ideas

4a. Describe primary and secondary research

• What are the definitions of primary and secondary research?
• What are examples of primary and secondary research?
• What are the benefits of using primary and secondary research?

There are two types of research. Primary research involves directly gathering new data through methods such as surveys, interviews, and direct observation to generate original information, while secondary research involves discovering, reporting on, and analyzing information that has already been gathered and published by others, such as academic articles, books, newspapers, and magazines.

Primary research offers the speaker originality and control. You provide the audience with fresh information they cannot find anywhere else. You can tailor your questions specifically to your speech topic and your audience's interests when conducting interviews or surveys.

Secondary research is efficient because it uses existing, expert-validated data. Using secondary research sources is faster and less expensive than conducting primary research. It allows you to lean on the expertise of professionals, scientists, and historians who are respected authorities on your speech topic. Secondary research helps you understand the depth of your topic before you decide if you need to do any primary research.

Balancing both types of research creates a speech that is both expert-backed and original.

Review

To review, see:

• What Is Research?

4b. Determine research needs based on the topic and purpose of a speech

• How does a persuasive purpose change the research requirements compared to an informative one?
• Why do "technical" topics require more diverse source types?
• In what way does the audience's prior knowledge dictate the depth of your research?

Different speech assignments will require different research based on your topic, purpose, and audience. A speech with a persuasive purpose requires stronger evidence and research into counter-arguments compared to the explanation-focused research needed for informative speeches. Technical topics require diverse source types, including journals, trade magazines, and expert interviews, to translate complex concepts into relatable information. What you know about your audience's knowledge about your topic will dictate the research depth, requiring foundational information for novices and deeper, specialized data for experts. In summary, supporting research should be deep enough to withstand audience questioning but clear enough to fit the time limit of your assignment.

Review

To review, see:

• Developing a Research Strategy

4c. Describe the nature and value of academic and non-academic sources

• What makes an academic source different from a non-academic source?
• What are some examples of academic sources and nonacademic sources?
• What type of topics are academic sources best suited for?
• What type of topics are non-academic sources best suited for?

For most speaking assignments, you will need a mix of academic sources and nonacademic sources. Academic sources are written by experts, often professors or researchers with advanced degrees and professional expertise, and are produced for other experts in their field. These publications undergo a rigorous peer-review process, meaning other experts must vet the research for accuracy and methodology before publication. Some examples of academic sources include scholarly journals and books published by scholarly or university presses that focus on very specific research areas. Academic sources are best suited for topics that require high levels of credibility, specialized data, or historical depth. They are the gold standard for topics such as scientific or medical claims, complex sociological or psychological theories, in-depth historical analysis, or any speech where you need to prove a point using evidence that has been verified by the scientific or scholarly community.

Non-academic sources are written by journalists or staff writers for a general audience. These publications are designed to be easy to read and interesting to the general public. While they may be fact-checked by an editor, they do not undergo the formal peer-review process of academic work. Some examples of nonacademic sources include popular periodicals, magazines, and newspapers that you might find sold at a local news vendor or grocery store. General websites, blogs, online news sites, and organizational websites are also considered nonacademic sources. Nonacademic sources are best suited for current events, popular culture, and practical, everyday information. They are especially useful for breaking news or very recent developments that academic journals haven't had time to cover yet, human-interest stories or anecdotes to build emotional connection, simplifying complex ideas so a general audience can understand them, and identifying common knowledge or trending public opinion.

Source variety is the key to building an interesting speech.

Review

To review, see:

• What Is Research?

4d. Determine the value of sources by using specific guidelines

• What are the guidelines for evaluating the value of a source?
• How does currency impact the value of a source in the field of technology?
• What are the markers of authority for an online author?
• How does bias affect the way a speaker should use a source?

As we collect sources to support our speech assignment, it is important to evaluate each source for its authority, objectivity, currency, accuracy, and relevance.

• Authority refers to the credentials and reputation of the author or organization responsible for the information.
• Objectivity is the absence of bias or the extent that the source presents a balanced, fair-minded view on the topic.
• Currency is the timeliness of the information, ensuring it is up to date for the specific subject matter.
• Accuracy refers to the degree that the information is free from error and can be verified by other reliable sources.
• Relevance is the extent that the information is directly related to the speech topic and supports the thesis.

In rapidly changing fields like technology, currency is the most important factor because information has a very short shelf life. While a source from five years ago might be fine for a history speech, it is likely obsolete for a technology topic. For technology topics, you should aim for the most recent data available (often published within the last few months) to avoid giving the audience incorrect information that has been surpassed by newer breakthroughs.

When finding information on the internet, it is very important to verify the source's authority. Because the internet allows anyone to publish information, you must look for specific markers of authority to determine if a source is credible. These include their credentials, experience, institutional affiliation, and transparency. Does the author have an advanced degree or specialized certification in that specific field? Does the author have a documented professional history of work in the industry they are writing about? Is the author backed by a reputable university, a government agency, or a well-known professional organization? Finally, reliable authors provide a biography, a list of previous publications, and clear contact information to be transparent with their readers.

Bias is part of objectivity and refers to a source having a particular prejudice or a vested interest in a topic. Bias does not always disqualify a source, but it changes how you use it. When using a biased source, you should tell your audience if a source has a known bias. In your research process, you will need to check the biased source's claims against more neutral, objective sources. In the end, if a source is too biased, you should reconsider using it.

Evaluating sources protects you from accidentally spreading misinformation. Be sure to cross-check any information you find with other independent sources to ensure accuracy and protect your credibility as a speaker.

Review

To review, see:

• Developing a Research Strategy

4e. Use paraphrasing and summarizing for citing a source

• What is the main difference between paraphrasing and summarizing?
• Why is paraphrasing often preferred over direct quoting in a speech?
• How does a speaker orally cite a paraphrased idea?

Paraphrasing and summarizing are two techniques we use when citing sources. The main difference between paraphrasing and summarizing lies in the scope and detail of the information.

• Paraphrasing involves taking a specific, small passage or a single idea from a source and restating it entirely in your own words, usually maintaining a similar length to the original.
• Summarizing involves condensing a large amount of material, such as an entire chapter or a long article, into a much shorter, high-level overview that captures only the main points.

Paraphrasing is preferred over using direct quotations because it allows you to maintain your consistent voice throughout the speech. Direct quotes can often be clunky and use technical jargon that doesn't match your natural style. By paraphrasing, you can simplify complex language for your audience and ensure the information flows smoothly with the rest of your points. Avoiding direct quotations also keeps you from reading to your audience, thus maintaining more eye contact and credibility. Even though you are using your own words in a paraphrase, the idea still belongs to the original creator, so you must give them credit. To orally cite a paraphrase, you should include the author's name, the source (like the book or website title), and a brief mention of the original creator's credentials or the date. For example: "In her 2023 book The Communication Age, Dr. Jane Smith explains that most people only remember about half of what they hear immediately after a conversation." Successful paraphrasing shows you understand the material and that you are a credible speaker because you give proper credit to your sources.

Review

To review, see:

• Citing Sources
• Verbally Citing Sources
• Using Research as Support

4f. Revise passages from a speech that display ethical issues in the use of sources

• How do you revise a passage that is taken out of context?
• What is the best way to fix a missing oral citation during a live speech?
• How can a speaker ethically use a quote from a biased source?
• What steps should a speaker take if they discover a source they used is discredited?

Maintaining honesty and credibility requires careful handling of research and citations. Some ethical issues that may require a speaker to revise their speech include any form of information dishonesty, such as plagiarism, misleading information, or disregarding the audience's needs. Plagiarism is any time the speaker uses ideas or a set of words that belong to another author without giving credit to the original author. This includes the lack of clear oral citations during a speech. Misleading information occurs when the speaker discovers that a fact is actually an opinion, or when information is exaggerated or distorted to fit a specific purpose. Disregarding the audience's needs refers to situations where the speaker finds that a passage taps into emotion rather than logic, or that it ignores significant factors or viewpoints relevant to the topic, such as using a passage solely to get a rise out of the audience rather than to genuinely support a point.

Taking evidence out of its original context, such as using only part of a quote to change its intended meaning, is a form of manipulation. To revise this, a speaker must include the qualifying statements or original surroundings of the idea to ensure the audience has an accurate view of the truth rather than a distortion.

The best way to fix a missing citation while speaking is to state the source immediately once you realize the error. Unlike a written paper, where citations appear at the end, a speech requires citing as you go. If you forget, you should pause and clarify by saying, "Earlier I mentioned a statistic about X; that data actually comes from [Author/Source] in [Date]." This will help to restore transparency and credibility.

A speaker can ethically use a biased source by disclosing the bias to the audience. For example, if using a quote from a lobbyist about the benefits of a drug, the most ethical choice is to acknowledge that the individual is a paid representative of the company. This allows the audience to make an informed decision by understanding the source's potential agenda.

If a speaker discovers a source is discredited, they have an ethical obligation to remove or replace it. Speakers should not knowingly use evidence from a source that is clearly biased or no longer supported. If the discovery occurs right before a speech, the speaker must either find a new, authoritative source to support the claim or remove the claim entirely to avoid deceiving their audience.

Ethical revision is about transparency with your audience. Ethical revision also means ensuring the source's original intent remains intact.

Review

To review, see:

• Supporting Evidence

4g. Describe three reasons and four criteria for using support in speeches

• What are the three reasons for using support in speeches?
• What are the four criteria for using support in speeches?
• Why is it important to meet all three reasons in a speech?

Supporting resources provide the content of your speech assignment. Rarely are we experts on the topic for a classroom speech assignment. Even when experts make presentations, they still rely on supporting evidence to make their points. There are three reasons and four criteria for using support materials in speeches.

The three reasons to use support are to clarify content, to add credibility, and to add vividness or interest. You should attempt to meet all three reasons as you collect and include support in your speech. If you only use support as proof (credibility), your audience may find your material dry and may perceive you as talking over them. If you rely heavily on using support to add vividness, your audience may remember your speech as being more fluff than substance.

The four criteria for using support in speeches are similar to the guidelines we use when selecting our sources: accuracy, authority, currency, and objectivity. These criteria function as your evidence filter as you select the best support for your points. It is important to use a variety of types of support to meet your audience's needs. Different audience members will be moved by different pieces of evidence.

Review

To review, see:

• Using Research as Support

4h. Describe the five types of supporting materials as used in a speech

• What are the five types of supporting materials?
• What are some examples of the types of supporting materials?
• What makes a testimonial different from a narrative?

There are five types of supporting materials that we use in speeches.

1. Definitions explain the meaning of a word or concept to ensure audience understanding. Examples of definitions are using a dictionary definition of the term cyberbullying or explaining a technical biology term like mitosis.
2. Examples are specific instances or cases used to illustrate a general claim or make it more concrete. For example, mentioning a specific person like Steve Jobs to illustrate the concept of a visionary leader.
3. Narratives are stories or anecdotes that create an emotional connection or illustrate a point. Examples of narratives include telling your audience a three-minute story about a time you got lost in a foreign country to highlight the importance of learning local customs.
4. Statistics are numerical data used to summarize large amounts of information or to show trends. An example of using statistics to support a point would be stating that "1 in 4 Americans suffers from a diagnosable mental disorder" to emphasize the scope of a health issue. Of course, we would also cite the source of that statistic to maintain our credibility.
5. Testimony refers to personal or expert accounts used to provide a specific perspective on a topic. To use a testimony, we could quote a climate scientist (expert) on rising sea levels or share a student's quote (peer) about the difficulty of finding a summer internship.

Testimonials and narratives sound similar, but are very different. The primary difference is structure and intent. A narrative is a story with a beginning, middle, and end; its goal is to engage the audience through a sequence of events. A testimonial is an opinion or statement of fact from a source; its goal is to provide credibility or validation for a specific claim. While a narrative might include testimony, a testimonial is often just a short quote or endorsement rather than a full story.

In summary, using a variety of these types of supporting materials keeps the speech engaging for all listening styles in your audience. Be sure to cite your sources orally when using secondary sources.

Review

To review, see:

• Exploring Types of Support
• Using Support and Creating Arguments

4i. Evaluate the effective use of each type of supporting materials

• How can we evaluate the effectiveness of each type of supporting materials?
• What makes a statistic ineffective for an audience?
• Why is it good practice to follow a definition with an example?
• What are the signs of weak testimony?

It is important to evaluate the effective use of your support materials to ensure they indeed add value to your speech. The effectiveness of definitions is based on clarity and necessity. A definition is effective if it clarifies a term that is potentially confusing to the audience without being overly simplistic or using a dictionary definition for a word everyone already knows.

The key to evaluating examples is representativeness. An example is effective if it is typical of the phenomenon you are describing. If you use a freak accident as an example of a common safety risk, it is considered ineffective because it is an outlier rather than a representative instance.

The effectiveness of a narrative is judged by probability (does the story hang together) and fidelity (does the story ring true to the audience's lived experience). A story that feels forced or unbelievable will fail to engage the audience emotionally.

Statistics are evaluated based on reliability and recency. You must ensure the data comes from a neutral, reputable source and that the numbers are not outdated. Effective statistics should also be translated into terms the audience can visualize. A statistic becomes ineffective when it is abstract, overwhelming, or lacks context for the audience to understand.

The primary criteria for testimonials are credibility and bias. For expert testimony, the person must be a recognized authority in that specific field. For peer testimony, the person must have actual first-hand experience with the topic. In both cases, the testimony is less effective if the source has a vested interest (bias) in the topic.

It is a good practice to follow a definition with an example. Definitions are often abstract or technical, which can leave an audience feeling confused even if the literal meaning is explained. Following a definition with an example is good practice because it anchors the abstract concept in reality. While a definition tells the audience what a thing is, the example shows them how it functions or what it looks like in the real world. This dual approach ensures that the audience not only hears the term but truly understands its application.

There are several signs that indicate a testimony is weak or unreliable. The most common sign of weak testimony is using a well-known person to speak on a topic where they have no actual professional training or expertise. Another sign is when the person giving the testimony has a clear vested interest in the outcome. If the quote has been out of context or edited in a way that misrepresents the original author's full argument, it is considered weak and ethically questionable. In fields that change quickly, such as medicine or technology, testimony from ten years ago is often considered weak because it no longer reflects current practice.

Review

To review, see:

• Exploring Types of Support
• Using Support and Creating Arguments

Unit 4 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• academic sources
• accuracy
• authority
• currency
• definitions
• examples
• narratives
• nonacademic sources
• objectivity
• paraphrasing
• plagiarism
• primary research
• relevance
• secondary research
• statistics
• summarizing
• testimony

Unit 5: Organizing Your Speech

5a. Develop main points to support the specific purposes of a speech

• How do you derive the main points from the specific purpose statement?
• Why must the main points be mutually exclusive?
• How does the thesis statement dictate the selection of main points?
• What is the result of having too many main points in a speech?

Main points for your speech are derived directly from your specific purpose statement. Main points are the key ideas or central themes that a speaker presents to support their thesis statement and achieve their specific purpose. Main points serve as the primary subtopics that break down the overall message into manageable and logical sections. For a classroom speech, which typically lasts five to seven minutes, the ideal number of main points is two to three. Having fewer main points allows the speaker to provide more in-depth supporting material for each one, ensuring the audience can process and remember the information within the short time frame. A thesis statement is a single, declarative sentence that encapsulates the central message of your speech. While a specific purpose statement is a tool for the speaker to stay on track, the thesis is the version shared directly with the audience. Every main point selected must directly support the thesis.

To derive main points from the specific purpose, a speaker must look at the specific purpose statement and ask, "What are the major subtopics needed to achieve this goal?" The specific purpose statement defines the finish line, and the main points act as the primary steps to get there. For example, if the purpose is to inform an audience about the life of a historical figure, the main points would likely be derived from the major chronological stages or significant contributions of that person's life.

Main points must be mutually exclusive to ensure that each point is distinct and does not overlap with the others. If points are not mutually exclusive, the speaker may end up repeating information, or the audience may become confused about where one idea ends and the next begins. Clear boundaries between points are essential for a logical flow and organized structure.

Having too many main points results in several negative consequences. The audience will struggle to remember the key takeaways for the presentation. The speaker will be forced to rush through each point, providing only surface-level information rather than meaningful supporting evidence due to time limitations. The speech is more likely to exceed the allotted time limit, which can lead to penalties in both classroom and professional settings.

Review

To review, see:

• Determining Your Main Ideas
• Creating Talking Points

5b. Explain appropriate organizational patterns for presenting different types of information in a public speech

• What are the common organizational patterns used for public speaking?
• What are organizational patterns commonly used for informative speeches?
• What are organizational patterns commonly used for persuasive speeches?
• In what situation would a speaker use a problem-cause-solution pattern for an informative speech?

The organizational pattern of your speech should match the natural shape of the topic. There are eight common organizational patterns:

1. A categorical/topical pattern divides the topic into natural, logical subtopics.
2. A chronological pattern follows a time sequence, moving either forward or backward.
3. In a spatial pattern, information is organized according to physical space or geographic location (like top to bottom or north to south).
4. A biographical pattern is used to describe a person's life, often following their life stages or major contributions.
5. A causal pattern is designed to explain cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
6. A comparison/contrast pattern focuses on the similarities and differences between two or more items or ideas.
7. A problem-cause-solution pattern is a three-part structure that identifies a problem, explains its underlying causes, and proposes a specific solution.
8. A psychological pattern is where "a leads to b" and "b leads to c", designed to follow the natural logical flow of an argument.

Informative speeches aim to help an audience understand a topic without attempting to change their beliefs. The patterns most frequently used for this purpose are chronological (for explaining a historical sequence or demonstrating a process), spatial (for describing the layout of a place or the different parts of an object), categorical/topical (for subjects that naturally break down into distinct categories without a necessary time or space relationship), and causal (for explaining why certain events occurred and what their results were).

Persuasive speeches require structures that build an argument and motivate the audience to take action. The most common patterns are problem-cause-solution (to establish that a significant problem exists before offering a viable way to fix it), comparison/contrast (when comparing multiple solutions to show why one is superior to the others), and psychological (to persuade by leading the audience through a step-by-step logical sequence of claims).

A speaker might choose to use a problem-cause-solution pattern in an informative speech if they propose more than one possible solution to the problem, giving the audience the opportunity to choose a solution for themselves.

Review

To review, see:

• Using Common Organizing Patterns
• Analyzing a Speech Body

5c. Describe effective transitions and signposts to improve the coherence and clarity of a speech

• What is the difference between a transition and a signpost?
• How does an internal preview help the audience?
• When should a speaker use an internal summary?
• Why are transitions considered the connective tissue of a speech?

We use transitions to help our audiences see the logical connections in our speeches.

A transition is a phrase or sentence that indicates a speaker is moving from one main point to another by summarizing the previous point and previewing the next. Transitions are called the connective tissue of the speech because, without them, a speech is just a collection of isolated facts and disjointed ideas. They provide the logical links that hold the entire structure together, ensuring that the speech flows naturally and that the relationship between various points is clear to the listener.

Internal previews are short statements within the body of a speech that give the audience advance warning of the specific points a speaker is about to cover. An internal preview helps the audience by acting as a mental roadmap within a specific main point and prepares them to listen for those specific details.

Internal summaries are brief restatements within the body of a speech that remind the audience of the information or points just covered in a section. A speaker should use an internal summary after they have finished discussing a complex or particularly long main point. It is most effective when the information presented is dense, as it allows the speaker to reinforce the key takeaways and ensure the audience has grasped the essential concepts before moving on to a new topic.

Signposts are short, simple verbal markers, such as "first", "next", or "finally", that help orient the audience by signaling exactly where the speaker is in the structure of the speech.

Transitions and signposts serve similar but different purposes. A transition is a full sentence or phrase that bridges two main points by looking backward at what was just said and forward to what is coming next. In contrast, a signpost is a very brief, often one-word verbal marker used to help the audience keep track of the speaker's place in the speech's sequence.

Review

To review, see:

• Keeping Your Speech Moving

5d. Explain the functions of an introduction

• What are the five functions of an introduction?
• Why is establishing credibility an important part of the introduction?
• What function does the preview serve?

There are five functions of an introduction:

1. Gain audience attention and interest. This is the first step of any speech. A speaker must use an attention-getter to pull the audience away from their internal thoughts and focus them on the speaker.
2. State the purpose of your speech. Once you have their attention, you must clearly tell the audience what you are going to talk about. This involves stating your thesis so the audience doesn't have to guess the topic. It ensures everyone is on the same page from the beginning.
3. Establish credibility. This function explains why the audience should listen to you. You establish credibility by briefly mentioning your expertise, your personal experience with the topic, or the extensive research you have conducted, which builds trust and shows you are a reliable source.
4. Provide a reason to listen. Also known as establishing relevance, this step connects the topic to the audience's needs or interests. You must tell the listeners how the information will benefit them, solve a problem they have, or why the topic is significant to their lives.
5. Preview main ideas. This is the roadmap of the speech. A speaker should briefly forecast the main points they will cover. This helps the audience mentally prepare for the structure of the presentation and makes the information easier to follow and retain.

These functions work together to engage the audience, set the context for the topic, demonstrate the speaker's expertise, establish relevance, and outline the speech's structure.

Review

To review, see:

• The Importance of an Introduction

5e. Apply effective techniques for attracting the attention of an audience based on an audience analysis or profile

• How does a rhetorical question attract attention compared to a direct question?
• What are the risks of using humor as an attention-getter?
• Why is a startling statistic effective for a persuasive speech?
• How can a reference to the occasion build an immediate bond?

There are eleven primary attention-getting devices for your speech introduction. These techniques are designed to pique audience interest, build rapport, and set the stage for the speech's topic.

1. Reference to subject: This is the most direct method where the speaker tells the audience what the subject of the speech is. It is best used when the audience is already interested in the topic or when the subject itself is highly significant.
2. Reference to audience: This technique involves a speaker acknowledging the audience and their relationship to the topic. It builds immediate rapport by showing the audience that the speaker understands who they are and why the topic matters to them specifically.
3. Quotation: Using a quote from a famous person, an expert, or a literary work can be a powerful way to start. The quote must be directly relevant to the topic and should serve to illustrate a key point or set a specific tone for the speech.
4. Reference to current events: This involves mentioning a news story or event that is happening right now. It helps the audience see the topic as timely and relevant, making it feel more urgent.
5. Historical Reference: A speaker can start by mentioning a past event or a specific date in history. This helps put the current topic into a broader context and can show how things have changed or remained the same over time.
6. Anecdote: A brief, focused story used to illustrate a point. It can be a true story, a parable (fictional story with a moral), or even a joke. Anecdotes are effective because people are naturally drawn to narrative structures.
7. Startling statement: This technique uses a shocking statistic, a surprising fact, or a bold claim to grab the audience's attention. The goal is to jar the audience out of their routine thoughts and make them curious about the rest of the speech. A startling statistic is effective for persuasive speeches because it creates that immediate cognitive jolt. The audience may start with a sense of apathy or a belief that the problem isn't urgent. A well-chosen, shocking statistic disrupts that complacency by providing objective, numerical evidence of the scale or severity of an issue. It forces the audience to stop and re-evaluate their preconceived notions, making them more likely to listen to the arguments and solutions that follow.
8. Question: A speaker can ask a response question or a rhetorical question. A rhetorical question is designed to make the audience think without expecting an oral response. It attracts attention by triggering an internal mental process, forcing listeners to engage with the topic personally as they formulate a silent answer. In contrast, a direct question (or response question) seeks a physical or verbal reaction, such as a show of hands. It attracts attention by breaking the "fourth wall" and demanding active participation, which shifts the audience from passive listeners to active participants in the speech's introduction.
9. Humor: Using a joke or a witty observation can break the ice and build a positive relationship with the audience. However, it is risky; the humor must be relevant to the topic and appropriate for the specific audience and occasion. If the audience doesn't find a joke funny, it can damage the speaker's confidence and credibility early on. Additionally, humor can easily backfire if it is perceived as offensive, culturally insensitive, or inappropriate for the specific occasion. Finally, if the humor isn't clearly tied to the speech's topic, it can distract the audience or make the speaker appear unprofessional or trivial about a serious subject.
10. Personal reference: This involves the speaker sharing a personal story or their own connection to the topic. It is highly effective for building credibility and showing that the speaker has direct experience with the subject.
11. Reference to occasion: This technique is used when a speech is given at a specific event (such as a wedding, graduation, or ceremony). This technique builds a bond by acknowledging the shared reality that both the speaker and the audience are experiencing at that exact moment. By mentioning the specific reason everyone has gathered, the speaker demonstrates that they have tailored their message for this specific group and time. This creates a sense of community and shared purpose, making the audience feel seen and respected by the speaker.

Review

To review, see:

• The Attention-Getter: The First Step of an Introduction

5f. Construct clear and complete thesis statements

• What is the difference between a topic and a thesis?
• Why must a thesis be a single declarative sentence?
• How does the thesis focus the speaker's research?
• What is the consequence of a vague thesis?

Constructing a clear and complete thesis statement provides a foundation for your speech. The thesis statement functions as the essential, single-sentence focal point of a presentation, articulating a clear, specific, and arguable claim. It functions as a foundational organizational tool that guides research, sets audience expectations, and ensures all main points support the central idea of the speech. The thesis statement is first drafted during the beginning of the speech preparation process in tandem with the specific purpose statement. As you conduct research for your presentation, you will revise your thesis statement to reflect the content of your speech. By the time you write your speech introduction, the thesis statement should be in its final form.

A topic is the broad subject area or general category of your speech. It is essentially the "what" of your presentation. A thesis is the specific argument or central claim you are making about the topic.

A thesis must be a single declarative sentence to ensure clarity and focus. If a thesis spans more than one sentence, it often means the speaker is trying to cover too many unrelated ideas, leading to a disjointed speech. By forcing the thesis into a single declarative statement (which makes a clear assertion rather than asking a question), it ensures that the speaker maintains a unified focus throughout the presentation. This helps the audience understand the core message in one clear, digestible bite.

The thesis acts as a filter for the research process. Once a clear thesis is established, the speaker can evaluate every piece of information, statistic, or anecdote they find: "Does this directly support my thesis?" If the answer is no, the information is discarded, no matter how interesting it might be. This prevents the speaker from collecting irrelevant data and ensures that every minute spent researching is dedicated to building a coherent, persuasive case for their central claim.

The consequence of a vague thesis is audience confusion and a lack of direction. If the thesis is not specific, the speaker will likely ramble or jump from one loosely related point to another without a clear destination. This makes it difficult for the audience to follow the speech's logic or retain the information. A vague thesis makes the speaker appear unprepared, as it suggests they haven't fully committed to a specific stance or purpose for their presentation.

In summary, a thesis statement should be used during speech preparation as a filter for content and stated explicitly in the introduction to establish a psychological contract with the audience.

Review

To review, see:

• Putting It Together: Steps to Complete Your Introduction

5g. Explain the functions of an effective conclusion

• What are the three main functions of a conclusion?
• Why should a speaker never say "In conclusion" and then talk for five more minutes?
• How does the restatement of the thesis differ from the original thesis?
• What is the purpose of a clincher?

There are three main functions of a conclusion to your speech. The first goal is to signal the end of the speech, mentally preparing the audience for the wrap-up. The second goal is to provide a concise summary of the key points discussed in the body to ensure they stick in the audience's memory. The third goal is to provide a sense of closure, which involves finishing the speech in a way that feels complete and leaves the audience with a meaningful final thought. The conclusion is your last chance to make an impression.

When a speaker says "In conclusion", they are making a psychological contract with the audience that the speech is ending. If the speaker continues to talk for several more minutes, they break that trust. The audience, having mentally prepared to finish, will often tune out, stop taking notes, or become restless and annoyed. This causes the listeners to miss the final points and damages the speaker's credibility and professional image.

Restating your thesis is a simple way to conclude a presentation. While the wording may be similar, the function of the thesis statement is different in the conclusion. The original thesis in the introduction is a preview statement. The restatement in the conclusion is a review statement. It is retrospective, framed to remind the audience of what has been discussed. It reinforces the central message now that the audience has the full context of the supporting evidence provided in the body of the speech.

The clincher is the very last sentence of the speech, and its purpose is to provide a powerful, memorable finale. Just as the attention-getter starts the speech with a bang, the clincher ensures the speech ends on a high note. It should be designed to stick in the audience's minds long after they leave the room, whether through a compelling story, a call to action, or a meaningful quotation that ties the entire message together.

Review

To review, see:

• Why Conclusions Matter
• Steps of a Conclusion
• Analyzing a Conclusion

5h. Apply effective techniques for concluding a speech

• How can a speaker circle back to the introduction in their conclusion?
• What characterizes a strong call to action?
• Why is a quotation a common concluding technique?
• How can a speaker use visualization to conclude a persuasive speech?

Just as there are many ways to start a speech, there are also many ways to end a speech. Here are ten conclusion devices.

1. Concluding with a challenge: This device involves the speaker explicitly calling on the audience to engage in a specific task or change their behavior. It is a way to push the audience to take the information they've learned and apply it to their lives.
2. Concluding with a quotation: A speaker uses the words of someone else, often a famous or authoritative figure, to provide a polished and poignant final thought. The quote should encapsulate the core message of the speech.
3. Concluding with a summary: This is a brief restatement of the main points covered in the speech. While it is a standard part of any conclusion, using it as a final clincher ensures the audience walks away with the most important information fresh in their minds.
4. Concluding by visualizing the future: The speaker paints a word picture for the audience, showing them what the world will look like if they adopt the speaker's ideas or what will happen if they don't.
5. Concluding with an appeal for action: Often used in persuasive speeches, this device tells the audience exactly what they should do next. It is more immediate than a challenge, often involving a specific, tangible step like signing a petition or making a donation.
6. Concluding with inspiration: The goal here is to stir the audience's emotions. The speaker uses uplifted language and a positive tone to leave the audience feeling motivated, hopeful, or empowered.
7. Concluding with advice: The speaker offers a personal recommendation based on the information presented. It is a way to provide practical value to the audience as they depart.
8. Concluding with a proposal or solution: In a problem-oriented speech, the speaker finishes by offering a specific way to fix the issue discussed. This gives the audience a sense of hope and a clear direction for resolving a problem.
9. Concluding with a question: By ending with a rhetorical or thought-provoking question, the speaker prompts the audience to keep thinking about the topic after the speech ends.
10. Concluding with a reference to the audience: This device brings the speech full circle by directly addressing the listeners. It reinforces how the topic specifically affects them or their community, strengthening the bond between the speaker and audience.

Four popular conclusion devices are summary, call to action, a quotation, and visualization. First, a speaker circles back (summarizes) by referencing the specific attention-getter they used at the beginning of the speech. For example, if you started with a story about a specific person, you would conclude by revealing the ending of that story or explaining how that person's situation relates to the points you just made. This technique provides the audience with a satisfying sense of completion and structural unity.

Second, a call to action is characterized by specificity, actionability, and immediacy. Instead of a vague suggestion like "be more environmentally friendly", a strong CTA gives the audience a clear task, such as "sign this specific petition on your way out" or "switch to LED bulbs this weekend". It tells the audience exactly what to do with the information they just received and empowers them to make tangible change. Third, quotations are popular because they allow a speaker to borrow the authority, eloquence, and credibility of another person to summarize their own point. A well-chosen quote can capture the essence of a complex topic in a brief, punchy, and highly polished way that is often more memorable than the speaker's own phrasing.

Finally, in a persuasive context, visualization involves showing the audience the consequences of their choices. A speaker can use "positive visualization" to describe a future where the audience adopts the speaker's ideas (for example, "Imagine a city where every park is safe and clean"). Conversely, they can use "negative visualization" to show the grim reality that will persist if the audience fails to act. This emotional appeal helps the audience see the importance of the speaker's message.

Review

To review, see:

• Steps of a Conclusion

Unit 5 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• anecdote
• attention-getting devices
• biographical pattern
• categorical/topical pattern
• causal pattern
• chronological pattern
• clincher
• comparison/contrast pattern
• concluding by visualizing the future
• concluding with a challenge
• concluding with a proposal of solution
• concluding with a question
• concluding with a quotation
• concluding with a reference to the audience
• concluding with a summary
• concluding with advice
• concluding with an appeal for action
• concluding with inspiration
• historical reference
• humor
• internal previews
• internal summaries
• main points
• personal reference
• problem-cause-solution pattern
• psychological pattern
• question
• quotation
• reference to audience
• reference to current events
• reference to occasion
• reference to subject
• signposts
• spatial pattern
• startling statement
• thesis statement
• transition

Unit 6: Delivery and Presentation Aids

6a. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of each delivery mode

• Why is extemporaneous speech usually required in classrooms?
• What is the main danger of manuscript delivery?
• When is impromptu delivery most likely to occur?
• What is the risk of memorized delivery?

There are four delivery modes:

1. Impromptu delivery is the presentation of a short message without any specific preparation. The speaker is generally spurred by an immediate need to speak, such as being asked to share their thoughts or expertise without prior notice. This might occur during a question-and-answer session at a meeting or when presenting a toast at a celebration.
2. Extemporaneous delivery involves the careful planning and rehearsal of a speech, but the delivery is done using only brief notes or a speaking outline. This allows for a conversational, spontaneous tone while ensuring the speaker covers all planned points. Extemporaneous delivery is the preferred mode for classroom assignments because it teaches students to balance preparation with audience engagement. It forces the speaker to internalize the material rather than just read it, allowing them to maintain eye contact and adapt their message to the audience's reactions.
3. Manuscript delivery involves reading a fully written-out script word-for-word. This mode is used when the exact wording is critical, such as for a formal press release. The main danger of this mode is that the speaker becomes tethered to the page, which kills audience connection. Because the speaker is focused on reading the specific words, they often lose eye contact, use fewer natural gestures, and speak in a monotone, rhythmic voice that fails to emphasize key ideas. This often leads to the audience tuning out.
4. Memorized delivery is the act of committing the entire manuscript to memory and reciting it without any notes. This is often used in performance-based contexts, such as theater or oratorical contests. The primary risk of this mode is forgetting what has been memorized when at the lectern. If a speaker forgets even one specific word or transition, they often cannot recover because they have memorized the speech as a linear string of words rather than a series of concepts. Memorized speeches often sound mechanical and lack the genuine warmth of conversational speaking.

Review

To review, see:

• Four Methods of Delivery
• Giving an Extemporaneous Speech

6b. Explain how the characteristics of the physical setting of a speech impact the speaker's preparation

• How does audience size change the way you use gestures?
• Why is lighting a factor in speaker preparation?
• How does the presence of a lectern affect delivery?
• What should a speaker check for regarding the room's technology?

The physical setting encompasses the environmental factors where the speech occurs, including the size of the room, the arrangement of the seating (such as theater-style vs. around a table), the acoustics and potential for background noise, the room's temperature, lighting, technology, and even the distance between the speaker and the audience. These characteristics dictate how loudly a speaker must talk, how much they need to move, and how they should position themselves to remain visible and audible to everyone.

The scale of your physical delivery must match the room's size. In a small setting, subtle gestures and facial expressions are effective because the audience is close enough to see them. As the audience size increases, gestures must become larger and more exaggerated. Small movements that look natural in a boardroom will disappear in a large auditorium.

Lighting is critical because the audience needs to see the speaker's face to fully process the message and build trust. If the lighting is too dim, the speaker may appear as a silhouette, hiding important facial expressions and nonverbal cues. Conversely, if the light is too bright or poorly directed, it can cause the speaker to squint at the audience. A speaker must also ensure that lighting does not wash out presentation aids.

A lectern serves as a place to hold notes, but it often acts as a physical and psychological barrier between the speaker and the audience. It can tempt a speaker to lean, grip the edges tightly, or stay rooted in one spot, all of which reduce their energy and engagement. To combat this, speakers are encouraged to stand tall, avoid leaning, and, if possible, step out from behind the lectern periodically to create a more direct and open connection with the audience.

If technology is part of a presentation, the speaker must ensure it is working properly. Essential checks include testing the microphone for volume and feedback, ensuring that slide clickers have fresh batteries, and verifying that the computer system is compatible with their presentation files. Additionally, check cord placement to avoid tripping hazards, and always have a non-electronic backup plan.

Review

To review, see:

• Speaking Contexts That Affect Delivery

6c. Explain effective use of delivery characteristics, including the use of eye contact, vocal qualities, and gesture

• How much eye contact is considered effective in North American public speaking?
• What are the three components of vocal variety?
• How do gestures improve a speaker's message?
• Why is posture important for both breathing and credibility?

Effective delivery includes both the oral or verbal part of the message and its nonverbal delivery characteristics, which enhance the verbal message and help establish the speaker's credibility and sincerity. These include:

• Eye contact: The speaker's ability to maintain visual contact with the audience. It is essential for capturing and maintaining audience interest and building trust. In North American public speaking, maintaining eye contact with the audience 80% to 90% of the time is considered effective for building trust and rapport. If eye contact falls below this level, the audience may perceive the speaker as untrustworthy, nervous, or overly dependent on their notes.
• Gestures: Natural, spontaneous movements of the arms and hands used to enhance the message. Gestures serve as visual reinforcement, clarifying, emphasizing, and conveying emotion, making the message more memorable. When gestures are natural and spontaneous, they make the speaker appear more "real" and approachable.
• Vocalics: This is the speaker's use of their voice and includes qualities such as pauses, vocal variety (volume, rate, and pitch), and correct pronunciation. Vocal variety is designed to enhance engagement with the message and the audience. Pitch is the highness or lowness of the speaker's voice. Rate is the speed that a person speaks at. Volume is the loudness or softness of the voice.
• Posture: A strong, balanced, and upright stance communicates authority and confidence. It also supports proper breathing for vocal projection. Conversely, slouching or shifting weight can make a speaker look unprepared, which undermines the audience's trust in their message.
• Facial expression: This involves using the face to communicate emotions and animation, which helps invite the audience's serious attention to the speaker and the topic.

Review

To review, see:

• Using Note Effectively
• Tips for Using Note Cards
• Practicing for Successful Speech Delivery
• Practicing to Speak
• Facial Expressions
• Mastering Eye Contact
• Giving Good Gestures
• Using a Speaker's Triangle
• Pitch

6d. Discuss the differences between denotative and connotative language

• What is the denotative meaning of a word?
• How does connotation vary between different cultures?
• Why should a speaker be careful with words that have strong negative connotations?
• In what way can connotation be used to persuade an audience?

Language is not neutral; every word choice sends an emotional signal.

The denotative meaning refers to the literal, objective definition of a word, often called its dictionary definition. It is the neutral meaning that most people agree upon when they look the word up. For example, the denotative meaning of snake is a scaly, legless, carnivorous reptile.

Connotative meaning refers to the emotional or culturally specific use of a word. Using the previous example, the word snake could have the connotative meaning of describing an unscrupulous person.

Because these associations are learned, they change across different groups, even within the same community, such as slang used by people of different age groups or ethnic backgrounds. While one culture might associate a word like "individualism" with independence and heroism, another might associate it with selfishness or a lack of community. Speakers must be aware that a word intended as a compliment in one culture might carry a negative connotation in another. Words with strong negative connotations can trigger an immediate emotional defensiveness in the audience. If you use a word that the audience finds offensive, hurtful, or unfairly biased, they may stop listening to your logical arguments and find you insensitive or unprofessional.

Connotation is a powerful tool for persuasion because it allows a speaker to frame an issue emotionally without changing the underlying facts. By choosing words with positive connotations (such as "investment" instead of "expense") or negative ones (such as "burden" instead of "responsibility"), a speaker can subtly nudge the audience toward a specific feeling or viewpoint. This strategic word choice helps align the audience's emotions with the speaker's goals.

Review

To review, see:

• Oral vs. Written Language

6e. Explain examples of appropriate use of language, including vivid language and inclusive language

• What is inclusive language?
• What is vivid language?
• What are some examples of inclusive language and vivid language?

Inclusive language is the deliberate use of words and phrases that avoid exclusion, stereotyping, or demeaning of people based on their gender, race, sexual orientation, disability, or other identity markers. Since a primary goal of communication is to foster a sense of respect and connection with all members of the audience, by using inclusive language, a speaker demonstrates awareness and empathy, which significantly bolsters their credibility and prevents the audience from feeling alienated or offended by biased terminology. There are several practical ways to make language more inclusive. Consider replacing gender-specific terms like "manpower" with gender-neutral alternatives like "human resources" or "policeman" with "police officer". Using people-first language focuses on the person rather than their condition, such as saying "a person who uses a wheelchair" instead of "a wheelchair-bound person". Avoid using stereotypical groupings, such as gendered pronouns for groups or individuals, or making assumptions about family structures.

Vivid language is the use of specific, sensory-driven words to create mental images or word pictures that help the audience visualize the speaker's ideas. Instead of using abstract or generic terms, vivid language utilizes imagery, which is words that appeal to the five senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch). This technique makes a speech more engaging and easier to remember because it turns information into a concrete experience the audience can see in their minds, rather than just a series of facts to process. Vivid language relies on specific imagery and figures of speech such as similes and metaphors, sensory descriptions, and action verbs. Saying "the project was a sinking ship" is the use of a metaphor; "the city was like a beehive of activity" is the use of a simile. These figures of speech create vivid mental associations. Sensory descriptions require creative language. Instead of saying "the weather was bad", a speaker might say "the biting, icy wind whipped across my face", which appeals to the sense of touch and sight. Using action verbs like "sprinted" instead of "ran fast" or "shattered" instead of "broke" gives the audience a clearer sense of the intensity of an action.

Inclusive language helps ensure you don't lose audience members due to bias. Vivid language engages your audience's senses.

Review

To review, see:

• Using Language Effectively

6f. Define the six elements of language

• What are the six elements of language?
• How do we define each of the elements of language?
• What are some examples of each of the elements of language?

There are six core elements of language for public speaking: clarity, economy, avoidance of obscenity, avoidance of obscure language/jargon, power, and variety. These elements emphasize the use of concise, respectful, and impactful language tailored to ensure audience understanding and engagement.

• Clarity means using words that help the audience understand ideas without confusion. Clarity is achieved by avoiding ambiguous, abstract terms, using concrete language, and keeping sentence structures simple.
• Economy means using only the words necessary to accurately convey an idea. In public speaking, wordiness can clutter a message and cause the audience to lose focus. A speaker who practices economy avoids "filler" words and redundant phrases, choosing the most direct and efficient path to express their point.
• Obscenity refers to avoiding the use of indecent, profane, or offensive language. Using obscene language is offensive to the audience and destroys the speaker's credibility, making the speaker appear unprofessional or disrespectful of the occasion.
• Obscure language/jargon includes terms that are not commonly understood by a general audience, as well as the specialized language of a specific profession or hobby. While these terms might be efficient among experts, they create a barrier in public speaking. If a speaker must use an obscure term, then they must define it immediately to ensure the audience is not left behind.
• Power in language refers to a speaker's ability to influence the audience's perception of them as competent and confident. Powerful language avoids hedges (like "I sort of think"), tag questions (like "right?"), and hesitations (like "uh" or "um"). By using direct phrasing, the speaker conveys certainty and authority, making the audience more likely to trust and accept their message.
• Variety is the intentional use of different types of words, sentence lengths, and rhetorical devices to keep the audience's attention. A speech that lacks variety becomes predictable and monotonous. By mixing short, punchy sentences with longer, more complex ones and using different descriptive techniques, a speaker keeps the auditory experience interesting and prevents the audience from tuning out.

Review

To review, see:

• Six Elements of Language
• Language
• Pronunciation

6g. Choose the most appropriate type of presentation aid to support the main points in a sample speech

• What are the types of presentation aids?
• What are some examples of commonly used presentation aids?
• What are each of the types of presentation aids good at conveying?

Presentation aids (also called sensory aids or visual aids) are the resources beyond the speech itself that a speaker uses to enhance the message conveyed to the audience and include charts, graphs, representations, objects or models, and audio/video recordings.

• Charts are graphical representations of data or sketches that represent an ordered process or relationship. Examples of charts that might be useful in a speech include statistical charts, sequence-of-steps charts, or decision trees. Charts are good at clarifying complex processes or showing logical relationships.
• Graphs are pictorial representations of the relationships between quantitative data points. Examples of graphics include line graphs, bar graphs, or pie graphs. Graphs are best for helping audiences interpret numerical information and see trends or comparisons that would be difficult to grasp through spoken numbers alone.
• Representations are aids that depict a real process, object, or place that cannot be easily brought to the venue of the speech, such as diagrams, maps, photographs, and drawings. Representations are ideal for illustrating things that are not readily seen, such as internal anatomy or distant geographic locations.
• Objects are tangible, physical items that a speaker can hold up and show during a speech, such as a piece of equipment, a historical artifact, or a specific tool.
• Models are three-dimensional re-creations or facsimiles of a physical object. Examples of models include a plastic model of the human heart or a 3D miniature architectural mockup of a building. Objects and models are superior for providing a tangible sense of scale or a physical reality that anchors the speech in the real world.
• Audio/video recordings are multimedia used to provide specific sound or moving visual evidence to support a point, such as a YouTube clip of a surgery or a sound bite from a famous speech. Audio/video aids are good at adding realism and variety, allowing the audience to hear or see evidence firsthand, which increases both interest and retention.

Review

To review, see:

• Functions of Presentation Aids
• Types of Presentation Aids
• Media to Use for Presentation Aids

6h. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of different presentation media

• What are the advantages of each presentation aid?
• What are the disadvantages of each presentation aid?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of using people or animals in a presentation?

Each type of traditional presentation aid has its advantages and disadvantages.

• Charts:
  • Advantages: They are excellent for organizing and summarizing large amounts of information, clarifying complex processes, and showing logical relationships. They help the audience follow a sequence and remember the structure of information.
  • Disadvantages: They can easily become overcrowded or text-heavy, which may distract the audience from the speaker's spoken words.
• Graphs:
  • Advantages: Graphs are effective for helping audiences quickly interpret numerical data and identify trends, comparisons, and proportional relationships. They make abstract numbers concrete and visually impactful.
  • Disadvantages: They can be misleading if not scaled correctly. If a graph is too cluttered with data points or small labels, it becomes impossible for the audience in the back of the room to read.
• Representations:
  • Advantages: These are the best tools for showing the audience something they cannot readily see with their own eyes, such as internal anatomy, distant locations, or specific historical moments.
  • Disadvantages: They can be highly distracting if they are too small or of low quality. Photographs, in particular, can be so compelling that the audience studies the image rather than listening to the speaker.
• Objects and Models:
  • Advantages: They provide a tangible, three-dimensional reality that other aids cannot match. They allow the audience to understand the actual size, texture, or physical operation of a thing.
  • Disadvantages: Objects can be too small for everyone to see (making it tempting to pass them around, which is a distraction). They can also be difficult to transport or manage while speaking.
• Audio and Video Recordings:
  • Advantages: They add variety and a sense of real life to the speech. They allow the audience to hear or see primary evidence, such as a snippet of a famous speech or a short demonstration of a technique.
  • Disadvantages: They are prone to technical failure. If a clip is too long, it can upstage the speaker and break the flow of the presentation.

People and animals are also a choice of presentation aid. Using a person (the speaker or a volunteer) can effectively demonstrate a physical action or process, such as a yoga pose or a CPR technique. But they can also become a distraction. Animals are highly unpredictable and generally not recommended as they can cause distractions, allergies, or safety concerns. Others can also upstage the speaker if they are not properly coached beforehand. An example of a positive use is if the speaker uses their own body to demonstrate the proper stance and grip for swinging a golf club.

Review

To review, see:

• Types of Presentation Aids
• Tips for Preparing Presentation Aids

6i. Critique the organization, simplicity, and clarity of presentation aids in a speech

• What are the common design principles of presentation aids?
• How are these principles used to evaluate the effectiveness of presentation aids?
• How can these principles be used to improve presentation aids?

Presentation aids are evaluated based on criteria to ensure they support, rather than distract from, the speaker's message. The five common design principles are unity, emphasis, scale and proportion, balance, and rhythm.

1. Unity refers to the consistency and harmony between all elements of your presentation aids. For instance, using the same font, background color, and style across all slides ensures they look like a unified set, which preserves your professionalism and credibility.
2. Emphasis means that every aid should have a clear focal point that draws the audience's eyes to the most important information. By making key elements larger, bolder, or a different color, you control what the audience notices first.
3. Scale and proportion involve the relative size of elements on an aid. Information must be large enough (typically at least 24-point font) for the entire audience to see. Proportion ensures that important items are appropriately sized compared to secondary details.
4. Balance means a well-designed aid should have an even distribution of visual weight. This prevents an aid from feeling lopsided or disorganized, which can be distracting and make the content harder for the audience to process.
5. Rhythm creates a sense of movement or flow within the aid, guiding the audience's eyes from one point to the next in a logical order. Using consistent spacing or recurring visual cues helps the audience follow the structure of the information you are presenting.

When applying the criteria, a presentation aid must be clear and simple enough for the audience to understand immediately. It should be a direct, uncluttered example of a specific element of the speech, avoiding excessive text or overly complex visuals that take too long to interpret. The most fundamental rule is that every audience member, including those in the back row, must be able to see, hear, or otherwise experience the aid. For visual aids, this means using large, bold text and high-contrast color combinations; for audio, it means ensuring sufficient volume.

Every aid must explicitly express or illustrate an idea in the speech. Unrelated visuals or media used simply because they are available are considered distractions that can undermine the speaker's credibility. To be effective, an aid must be used at the precise time the related idea is being presented. It should be smoothly integrated into the speech, with the speaker providing a verbal transition to explain what the aid shows and why it is important. Aids should look like they were designed as a cohesive set to maintain a polished, professional image. This includes using consistent fonts and a unified design style throughout a presentation. An aid must be easy for the speaker to use without fumbling. Furthermore, a speaker is evaluated on their preparedness for technical failures; they must have a backup plan, such as printed handouts or an outline, to continue the speech if the primary aid fails.

Review

To review, see:

• Media to Use for Presentation Aids
• Tips for Preparing Presentation Aids

Unit 6 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• audio/video recordings
• balance
• charts
• clarity
• connotative meaning
• denotative meaning
• design principles
• economy
• emphasis
• extemporaneous delivery
• eye contact
• facial expression
• gestures
• graphs
• impromptu delivery
• inclusive language
• manuscript delivery
• memorized delivery
• models
• nonverbal delivery characteristics
• objects
• obscenity
• obscure language/jargon
• physical setting
• posture
• power
• presentation aids
• representations
• rhythm
• scale and proportion
• unity
• variety
• vivid language
• vocalics

Unit 7: Speaking to Inform and Entertain

7a. Describe several common topic categories that may be used in informative speeches

• What are the common topic categories of informative speeches?
• How do we define the subject matter of the common topic categories of informative speeches?
• How can one subject be addressed by different topic categories?

There are five common categories of informative speeches, including objects (tangible items), people (significant individuals), events (historical or current occurrences), concepts (abstract ideas or theories), and processes (how-to or functional explanations). Identifying the appropriate category helps speakers select the best organizational structure for their presentation.

If a student chooses a general topic, such as the American Civil War, they can use the common categories of informative speeches to narrow their topic in several ways. The student could narrow their topic to a discussion of a single object from the Civil War, such as the Minie Ball Bullet. They would describe its design and explain how this specific piece of technology fundamentally changed military tactics and increased casualty rates during the war. If they wanted to focus on people, they would have a host of historical figures to choose from, including those from the Civil War. They might choose someone like Clara Barton and focus their attention on her contributions to battlefield nursing. An event speech might cover one of the Civil War's battles, such as the Battle of Gettysburg. For a concept speech, they could speak about the idea of states' rights. Finally, they could choose to prepare a process speech about the logistics of the Underground Railroad. This could involve a "how-it-worked" explanation, detailing the specific methods, codes, and stations used to transport individuals to safety.

Review

To review, see:

• Informative Speaking Goals
• Types of Informative Speeches

7b. Identify the four ingredients of a good entertaining speech

• What are the four ingredients of an entertaining speech?
• Why is it important to consider the occasion when preparing an entertaining speech?
• Why is it important to consider the time element when preparing an entertaining speech?

There are four important ingredients for a good entertaining speech.

First, preparation is key to a successful speech. As with any formal presentation, an entertaining speech requires careful planning and practice. A speaker should not rely solely on spontaneity; instead, prepare the speech to ensure the message is clear and the delivery is polished.

Second, adapting to the occasion is necessary. The speaker must consider the specific event (such as a wedding, award ceremony, or funeral) and tailor the tone and content accordingly. A speech that is appropriate for the occasion ensures that the humor or message aligns with the audience's expectations for that setting.

Third, it is essential to know the audience and adjust the speech's references, language, and humor to their background and interests. Effective entertainment relies on the speaker's ability to connect with the specific group of people in the room.

Finally, the speaker must be mindful of the time element of the speech. Entertaining speeches are often part of a larger event, making brevity crucial. A speaker must be mindful of the allotted time and avoid speaking for too long, as this can cause the audience to lose interest or disrupt the event's schedule.

Review

To review, see:

• Understanding Entertaining Speeches

7c. Identify the types of entertaining speeches

• What are the common types of ceremonial speeches?
• What are the common types of inspirational speeches?
• What are examples of ceremonial and inspirational speeches?

Entertaining speeches include both ceremonial and inspirational speeches. There are eight common types of ceremonial speeches and five common types of inspiration speeches.

Ceremonial speeches include introductions, speeches of presentation, acceptances, dedications, toasts, roasts, eulogies, and farewells.

• A speech of introduction is a brief speech that provides the audience with a guest speaker's background and prepares them for the upcoming presentation. Its goal is to build the speaker's credibility and generate interest. An example is a club president introducing a guest author by highlighting their awards and the title of their new book.
• A speech of presentation is given to accompany a prize, award, or honor. It explains the significance of the award and why the specific recipient is being recognized. An example is when a principal presents a Teacher of the Year trophy and lists the recipient's contributions to the school.
• A speech of acceptance is delivered by the recipient of an award or honor. The goal is to show gratitude for the recognition and acknowledge those who helped the recipient achieve success. An example is an actor thanking their family, costars, and director after winning an Oscar.
• A speech of dedication is given when a new store, building, library, or monument is opened to the public. It highlights the importance of the structure and the people involved in its creation. An example is when a mayor speaks at the ribbon-cutting ceremony for a new city park.
• A toast is a very brief speech designed to congratulate, appreciate, or remember someone. It usually ends with the audience raising their glasses in unison. An example is a best man offering a short tribute to the groom's character at a wedding reception.
• A roast is a humorous and good-natured speech that pokes fun at the guest of honor. It requires a balance of insult humor and genuine affection for the person being roasted. An example is a retiring CEO's colleagues sharing funny stories about his early career mistakes at a farewell dinner.
• A eulogy is given in honor of someone who has passed away. It celebrates the deceased person's life, achievements, and positive qualities to provide comfort to the grieving. An example is a daughter sharing a favorite memory of her father during his funeral service.
• A speech of farewell is given by someone who is leaving a position, a group, or a location. It expresses appreciation for the time spent there and well-wishes for the people staying behind. An example is a graduating senior thanking their professors and classmates at an end-of-year banquet.

Inspirational speeches include those intended to foster goodwill, for public relations, for justification, for apology, and for commencement addresses.

• A speech to ensure goodwill is an attempt by an organization or person to get an audience to view them more favorably. It is often used to repair a reputation or highlight charitable work, like a representative from a power company speaking to a neighborhood group about their new environmental protection initiatives.
• A speech for public relations is delivered specifically to enhance and build up the public image of the speaker or the organization they represent. An example is when a tech company executive gives a presentation at an industry conference to unveil a new eco-friendly server design, enhancing the brand's reputation as an environmental leader.
• A speech of justification is given to defend or explain why certain actions were taken, or will be taken, to show that the behavior was appropriate. An example is a university president speaking to students and faculty to explain the strategic and necessary financial reasons behind increasing tuition rates for the upcoming academic year.
• An apology is where the speaker takes responsibility for a transgression, expresses genuine remorse, and offers restitution to repair credibility. An example is when a corporate chief executive addresses the media to admit a data breach occurred due to company negligence, genuinely apologizes to affected users, and outlines immediate steps to secure their data.
• A commencement address is a type of keynote speech given at a graduation ceremony. It is designed to celebrate the graduates' achievements and provide them with motivational advice for the future. An example is a successful business leader telling graduates to "follow their passion" during a university graduation.

Review

To review, see:

• Special Occasion Speeches
• Speaking for Special Occasions
• Keynote Speaking

7d. Evaluate the effectiveness of an informative speech outline

• What are some guidelines we can use to evaluate the effectiveness of an informative speech outline?
• What are some typical reasons why an informative outline might not be effective?
• How are preparation outlines and speaking outlines evaluated differently?

The effectiveness of an informative speech outline is evaluated by its ability to serve as a logical framework for the message. A good outline allows a speaker to test the core structure and validity of their speech before delivery.

Some criteria for evaluating an effective informative outline include:

• Focus on a single thesis. The outline must demonstrate that each point directly supports a single, clear, concrete thesis statement, thereby excluding irrelevant or tangential information.
• Logical relationships. It is evaluated on how well it shows the hierarchy of ideas. A strong outline visually reveals if main points follow a legitimate sequence and if sub-points provide sufficient, logical support for those main points.
• Balance and proportion. The outline helps ensure the main points are developed equally. A speaker can see if one point is over-researched while others are thin, allowing for a more balanced presentation.
• Inclusion of essential speech parts. An effective outline must include all three major sections: a structured introduction, a detailed body, and a conclusion.
• Preparation for delivery. A preparation outline is judged on its detail (often written in full sentences), while a speaking outline is evaluated on its brevity and utility in helping the speaker stay organized without reading to the audience

A poorly executed informative speech outline usually fails because it stops being a framework and starts being a distraction. Here are some common ways an outline can be ineffective.

• If an outline is written as a manuscript rather than an outline, it becomes impossible to see the logical flow at a glance. During delivery, the speaker ends up reading the paper instead of making eye contact, which kills audience engagement.
• If an outline consists only of one-word labels like "History", "Current Status", and "Future", then it lacks the connective tissue required for a speech. Without full ideas or specific evidence listed under these labels, the speaker has no plan for how to explain those topics, leading to a rambling, disorganized presentation.
• If an outline is unbalanced, it reveals a lack of research and depth. The audience will feel the speech is lopsided, spending 80% of the time on one minor detail and rushing through the rest of the important information.
• If an outline includes interesting stories or fun facts that have nothing to do with the specific thesis statement, then it lacks unity. By failing to use the thesis as a filter, the speaker confuses the audience with irrelevant information that distracts from the primary goal of increasing understanding.

Review

To review, see:

• Sample Expository Speech Outlines for Evaluation

Unit 7 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• apology
• commencement address
• eulogy
• roast
• speech for public relation
• speech of acceptance
• speech of dedication
• speech of farewell
• speech of introduction
• speech of justification
• speech of presentation
• speech to ensure goodwill
• toast

Unit 8: Persuasive Speaking

8a. Apply common communication theories to persuasive presentations, like social judgment theory, cognitive dissonance theory, and the elaboration likelihood model

• What is Social Judgment Theory?
• What is Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
• What is the Elaboration of Likelihood Model?
• How can these theories be applied to persuasive presentations?

Social Judgment Theory, Cognitive Dissonance Theory, and the Elaboration of Likelihood Model are three concepts that can be applied to the process of persuasion.

Social Judgment Theory holds that audiences compare persuasive messages with their existing attitudes, categorizing them as falling within the latitudes of acceptance, noncommitment, or rejection. Persuasion is influenced by ego-involvement, with successful communication typically falling within the latitude of acceptance or noncommitment to avoid contrast effects. A speaker should apply Social Judgment Theory by strategically positioning their message relative to the audience's existing beliefs.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory posits that cognitive dissonance is an aversive motivational state that occurs when an individual simultaneously holds two or more contradictory attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors. This inconsistency creates a sense of psychological discomfort or tension that people are naturally driven to resolve. For example, if you believe you should be practicing your speech but choose to go to a movie instead, the conflict between your "should" and your "action" produces dissonance. The goal of a persuasive speaker is to induce enough dissonance in the listeners that they feel a need to change to restore mental harmony. By presenting new information that conflicts with the audience's current behaviors or beliefs, the speaker creates an uncomfortable gap. To close this gap, the audience is motivated to either change their behavior to match the new information or adjust their beliefs to justify their actions.

The Elaboration Likelihood Model explains how people process persuasive messages through two distinct pathways, the central route and the peripheral route. The central route involves high elaboration, meaning the audience carefully scrutinizes the speaker's logic, evidence, and arguments. This occurs when listeners are both motivated (they care about the topic) and able (they have the time and knowledge) to process the information. Persuasion through this route is generally stable and long-lasting because it is built on deep cognitive effort. The peripheral route involves low elaboration, in which listeners rely on surface-level cues rather than the message's content. These cues might include the speaker's physical attractiveness, perceived expertise, or the quality of their presentation aids. While this can lead to a quick shift in attitude, the resulting persuasion is often temporary and can be easily overturned by counterarguments. To apply this model, a speaker must evaluate the audience's motivation and ability. If the audience has a high personal stake in the topic, the speaker must prioritize strong, logical support and evidence (central route). If the audience is less engaged, the speaker should focus on their delivery and credibility (peripheral route) to capture their interest.

Review

To review, see:

• Persuasion
• Giving a Persuasive Speech

8b. Identify the four types of persuasive claims

• What are the four types of persuasive claims?
• How do you define each type of persuasive claim?
• What is an example of each of the persuasive claims?

There are four primary types of persuasive claims:

1. Claims of definition argue the denotation or classification of what something is. The goal is to convince the audience that a specific person, event, or thing should be categorized in a certain way. An example is arguing that a specific artistic movement should be classified as Post-Modernism rather than Modernism.
2. Claims of fact argue the truth or falsity of an assertion being made about a past, present, or future state of affairs. They focus on whether something is objectively true or false. An example is arguing that "The use of plastic straws is the primary cause of ocean pollution in coastal cities".
3. Claims of policy argue the nature of a problem and the specific solution that should be taken to address it. These speeches often aim for either passive agreement (getting the audience to support the policy) or immediate action (getting the audience to take action). An example is arguing that "The federal government should provide a universal basic income to all citizens".
4. Claims of value argue a judgment about something, typically whether it is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral, or beautiful or ugly. They require the speaker to provide clear criteria for how they reached that evaluation. An example is arguing that "Volunteerism is more morally significant than monetary donations for community development".

Review

To review, see:

• Persuasion
• Types of Persuasive Speeches

8c. Describe examples of the two types of policy claims

• What are the two types of policy claims?
• How do you define each of the policy claims?
• What is an example of each of the policy claims?

Policy claims are categorized by whether they seek passive agreement or immediate action.

In a passive agreement, the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a specific policy is desirable or necessary without asking them to take any specific physical action. The aim is simply to change or reinforce the audience's thinking on the matter. An example could be a speech arguing that "The federal government should implement a four-day work week for all non-essential employees". In this case, the speaker just wants the audience to walk away believing the policy is a good idea.

In an immediate action, the speaker goes beyond agreement and explicitly asks the audience to engage in a specific, tangible behavior to support the policy. This requires more effort from the audience and is considered a more demanding form of persuasion. An example of this could be a speech arguing that "You should go to the city council website tonight and email your representative to support the new four-day work week proposal". Here, the speaker provides a direct "to-do" list for the audience to follow immediately.

Review

To review, see:

• Giving a Persuasive Speech
• Types of Persuasive Speeches

8d. Explain common organizational patterns for persuasive speeches

• What are common organizational patterns for persuasive speeches?
• How do you define each of the organizational patterns for persuasive speeches?
• What are some examples of these organizational patterns in use?

There are three primary organizational patterns for persuasive speeches. These structures aim to effectively move an audience toward action, explain the causes of a problem, or argue for a superior solution, respectively.

1. Monroe's Motivated Sequence is a five-step organizational pattern (Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, and Action) specifically designed to move an audience toward a concrete action. It mimics the natural human psychological process of problem-solving. An example is a speech asking the audience to sign up for a local community garden. The speaker grabs attention with a story about food deserts, establishes the need for fresh produce, satisfies that need with the garden proposal, helps the audience visualize a greener neighborhood, and provides a clear action step by handing out sign-up sheets.
2. The problem-cause-solution pattern breaks the speech into three distinct parts: identifying a specific problem, analyzing the underlying causes of that problem, and proposing a feasible solution that directly addresses those causes. An example is a speech regarding rising city pollution. The speaker identifies the problem (dangerous air quality levels), explains the cause (outdated public transit and lack of bike lanes), and proposes the solution (a city-wide initiative to replace diesel buses with electric ones and expand cycling infrastructure).
3. The comparative advantages pattern is used when the audience already agrees that a problem exists. The speaker focuses on comparing multiple solutions and argues why their proposed solution is superior to the alternatives. An example is a speech given to a school board that is already planning to buy new laptops. The speaker explains why "Model A" is better than "Model B" by comparing their costs, durability, and software capabilities to demonstrate the advantages of choosing Model A.

Review

To review, see:

• Organizing Persuasive Speeches
• Monroe's Motivated Sequence for Persuasive Speaking

8e. Evaluate the effectiveness of a persuasive speech outline

• What is the role of the persuasive speech outline?
• What criteria can we use to evaluate the effectiveness of a persuasive outline?
• What constitutes an ineffective outline?

An effective persuasive speech outline serves as a strategic, audience-centered blueprint incorporating logical organization, a balance of ethos, pathos, and logos, and credible evidence. It is evaluated by its ability to move the audience from a current stance to a desired outcome through a clear, unified structure that culminates in a specific call to action.

To evaluate the effectiveness of a persuasive outline, you must focus on argumentative structure, psychological progression, and the ethical use of evidence designed to change audience beliefs, values, or behaviors. The outline must strictly follow a recognized persuasive structure, such as Monroe's Motivated Sequence or the problem-solution structure. Each main point must build upon the previous one, such as by establishing a severe problem before introducing the specific solution. The final section must include a specific, realistic call to action telling the audience exactly what to do. The outline's core proposition must be easily identifiable as a proposition of fact, value, or policy. The thesis statement must take a definitive, non-neutral stance on an issue that has multiple viewpoints. The core claim must be narrow enough to be realistically argued and supported within the given time limit. Main points must be supported by credible data, statistics, and expert testimony rather than mere opinion. The introduction must establish the speaker's competence and character, while avoiding manipulative tactics or fallacious reasoning. The outline should integrate vivid examples, narratives, or values that tap into audience emotions without overriding logical arguments. The arguments chosen must clearly indicate whether the target audience is hostile, neutral, or supportive. The outline must explicitly identify at least one major counterargument and provide a logical rebuttal to neutralize it. The introduction or early body points must establish shared values or beliefs between the speaker and the audience.

An ineffective outline for a persuasive speech is one that fails to provide a logical, unified framework for the message. An ineffective outline might have a lack of a clear claim or thesis, logical gaps, haphazard organization, imbalanced development of main points, failure to address the need, a missing or vague call to action, or the use of a manuscript format.

Review

To review, see:

• Sample Persuasive Speech Outlines for Evaluation

Unit 8 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• claims of definition
• claims of fact
• claims of policy
• claims of value
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• comparative advantages
• Elaboration Likelihood Model
• immediate action
• Monroe's Motivated Sequence
• Passive Agreement
• Social Judgment Theory

Glossary

academic sources

Sources that are written by experts, often professors or researchers with advanced degrees and professional expertise, and are produced for other experts in their field.

accuracy

This refers to the degree that the information is free from error and can be verified by other reliable sources.

action-oriented

These listeners focus on tasks, and they want to know what the speaker wants them to do with the information. They prefer organized, direct messages.

active listening

This is the process of purposeful, intentional, and motivated listening whereby the listener strives to understand a speaker's message, distinct from the involuntary act of hearing.

adequacy

This principle requires providing sufficient support for claims through necessary definitions and high-quality evidence.

after-dinner speeches

Entertaining speeches that are lighthearted speeches given after a formal meal, often aligned with the theme of the event.

apology

This is where the speaker takes responsibility for a transgression, expresses genuine remorse, and offers restitution to repair credibility.

attention-getting devices

These techniques are designed to pique audience interest, build rapport, and set the stage for the speech's topic.

audience analysis

Research regarding the group of people a speaker will make their presentation to.

audience anxiety

This form of communication apprehension is associated with anxiety brought on by the group of people being addressed by the speaker.

authority

This refers to the credentials and reputation of the author or organization responsible for the information.

ceremonial speeches

Entertaining speeches that include speeches given as part of a ceremony, such as introductions, toasts, roasts, and eulogies.

claims of definition

This claim argues for the denotation or classification of what something is.

claims of fact

This claim argues the truth or falsity of an assertion being made about a past, present, or future state of affairs.

claims of policy

This claim argues for the nature of the problem and the specific solution to address it.

claims of value

This claim argues for a judgment about something, typically whether it is good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral, or beautiful or ugly.

clarity

This element of language refers to using words that ensure the audience understands ideas without confusion.

clincher

This is the very last sentence of the speech, and its purpose is to provide a powerful, memorable finale.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

This theory posits that cognitive dissonance is an aversive motivational state that occurs when an individual simultaneously holds two or more contradictory attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors. This inconsistency creates a sense of psychological discomfort or tension that people are naturally driven to resolve.

cognitive restructuring

This is when a speaker replaces negative thoughts with positive ones.

commencement address

This is a type of keynote speech given at a graduation ceremony.

communication apprehension

This is the fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with another person or group, such as in public speaking.

comparative advantages

This pattern is used when the audience already agrees that a problem exists.

concept-oriented speeches

Informative speeches that explain abstract ideas, theories, or philosophies.

consistency

This principle focuses on maintaining a focused, stable approach throughout the speech, primarily by ensuring the entire outline remains aligned with a single, clear thesis statement.

connotative meaning

This type of meaning refers to the emotional or culturally specific use of a word.

content-oriented

These listeners focus on the meaning and credibility of the message itself. They enjoy complex information and analyzing the speaker's logic.

context anxiety

This is a form of communication apprehension is defined by the type of setting where a person is speaking that makes them anxious.

critical listening

The process of using careful, systematic thinking and reasoning to see whether a message makes sense in light of factual evidence.

currency

This is the timeliness of the information, ensuring it is up to date for the specific subject matter.

definitions

These explain the meaning of a word or concept to ensure audience understanding.

demographics

These are characteristics about a group that are easily observed, such as age, gender, or occupation.

denotative meaning

This type of meaning refers to a word's literal, objective definition, often called its dictionary definition.

design principles

These principles are used to evaluate the effectiveness of visual aids and include unity, emphasis, scale and proportion, balance, and rhythm.

dialogical theory of public speaking

A communication theory that posits that public speaking should be viewed as a dialogue between the speaker and the listeners, even though the listeners often have limited feedback.

during-speech techniques

These include relaxation techniques that the speaker can use during their presentation to reduce anxiety.

economy

This means using only the words necessary to accurately convey an idea.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

This model explains how people process persuasive messages through two distinct pathways: the central route and the peripheral route.

ethics pyramid

This is a structured approach to evaluating the ethical content of messages using three levels: intent, means, and ends.

eulogy

This speech is given in honor of someone who has passed away.

event-oriented speeches

Informative speeches that are about occurrences, whether historical, current, or future.

examples

These are specific instances or cases used to illustrate a general claim or make it more concrete.

extemporaneous delivery

This mode of delivery involves the careful planning and rehearsal of a speech, but the delivery is done using only brief notes or an outline.

eye contact

This is the speaker's ability to maintain visual contact with the audience.

facial expression

This involves using the face to communicate emotions and animation.

full-sentence outline

This outline provides a complete blueprint of your speech.

general purpose

This is the broad goal of the speech.

gestures

These are natural, spontaneous physical movements of the arms and hands used to enhance the message.

immediate action

This policy claim is where the speaker convinces the audience to perform a concrete, observable behavior right away or shortly after the speech concludes.

impromptu delivery

This mode of delivery involves presenting a short message without any specific preparation.

inclusive language

This type of language is the deliberate use of words and phrases that avoid exclusion, stereotyping, or demeaning of people based on their gender, race, sexual orientation, disability, or other identity markers.

inspirational speeches

Entertaining speeches that are designed to motivate or uplift the audience emotionally, such as a commencement address.

internal previews

These are short statements within the body of a speech that give the audience an advance warning or preview of the specific points a speaker is about to cover.

internal summaries

These brief restatements, used within the body of a speech, remind the audience of the information or points just covered in a section.

issues-oriented speeches

Informative speeches that are about a point of controversy or a matter in dispute, where the goal is to explain the issue objectively rather than take a side.

listening

This is an active, physical, and mental process that includes the following distinct stages: receiving, understanding, remembering, evaluating, and responding.

manuscript delivery

This mode of delivery involves reading a fully written-out script word-for-word.

memorized delivery

This mode of delivery involves committing the entire manuscript to memory and reciting it without notes.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

This is a five-step organizational pattern (Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, and Action) specifically designed to move an audience toward a concrete action. It mimics the natural human psychological process of problem-solving.

narratives

These are stories or anecdotes that create an emotional connection or illustrate a point.

nonacademic sources

Sources that are written by journalists or staff writers for a general audience.

nonverbal delivery characteristics

These characteristics enhance the verbal message and help establish the speaker's credibility and sincerity.

objectivity

This is the presence of bias or the extent that the source presents a balanced, fair-minded view on the topic.

objects-oriented speeches

Informative speeches that are about tangible things, such as animals, places, or products.

obscenity

This refers to avoiding indecent, profane, or offensive language.

obscure language/jargon

This element of language includes terms not commonly understood by a general audience, as well as specialized language specific to a profession or hobby.

parallelism

This principle ensures that using similar grammatical structures for main points makes them predictable and easy for the audience to remember.

paraphrasing

This practice involves taking a specific, small passage or a single idea from a source and restating it entirely in your own words, usually maintaining a similar length to the original.

passive agreement

In this policy claim, the aim is simply to change or reinforce the audience's thinking on a proposition.

people-oriented

These listeners primarily focus on the speaker's feelings and emotional state. They listen to build or maintain a relationship.

people-oriented speeches

Informative speeches that focus on specific individuals or groups, often highlighting their contributions or life stories.

physical noise

This includes external sounds or environmental factors that distract the listener.

physical setting

This encompasses the environmental factors where the speech occurs, including the size of the room, the arrangement of the seating, the acoustics and potential for background noise, the room's temperature, lighting, technology, and the distance between the speaker and the audience.

physiological noise

This includes distractions caused by the listener's own body or physical state.

plagiarism

This is any time the speaker uses ideas or a set of words that belong to another author without giving credit to the original author.

posture

A strong, balanced, and upright stance communicates authority and confidence.

power

This refers to a speaker's ability to influence the audience's perception of their competence and confidence.

primary research

This involves directly gathering new data through methods like surveys, interviews, and direct observation to create original information

presentation aids

These are the resources beyond the speech itself that a speaker uses to enhance the message conveyed to the audience, including charts, graphs, representations, objects or models, and audio/video recordings.

process-oriented speeches

Informative speeches that explain a series of actions that lead to a specific result.

propaganda

This is a controversial type of persuasion that uses biased or misleading information to promote a particular cause or point of view.

psychographics

The psychological variables that help you understand how an audience thinks.

psychological noise

This includes internal mental or emotional distractions, such as personal worries or prejudices, that prevent a listener from focusing on the message.

pure persuasion

This occurs when a speaker urges an audience to change their minds or behaviors about a topic where there is no clear right or wrong choice.

relevance

This is the extent that the information is directly related to the speech topic and supports the thesis.

roast

This is a humorous, good-natured speech that pokes fun at the guest of honor.

secondary research

This involves discovering, reporting on, and analyzing information that has already been gathered and published by others, such as academic articles, books, newspapers, and magazines.

semantic noise

This is the confusion that occurs when a listener doesn't understand the speaker's words, like jargon or slang.

signposts

These are short, simple verbal markers, such as "first", "next", or "finally", that help orient the audience by signaling exactly where the speaker is in the structure of the speech.

singularity

This principle ensures that each point or sub-point within an outline contains only one distinct idea.

situation analysis

When the speaker considers the effects of the occasion and environment where the presentation is made.

situational anxiety

This form of communication apprehension occurs when a speaker is confronted by a unique combination of factors and is generated by a combination of audience, time, and context.

Social Judgment Theory

This theory dictates that audiences compare persuasive messages against their existing attitudes, categorizing them into latitudes of acceptance, noncommitment, or rejection.

speaking outline

This outline uses keywords and phrases and serves as a delivery aid.

speaking to entertain

Speech that uses humor or emotion to convey a message. [entertaining speech]

speaking to inform

Speech that focuses on expanding knowledge and understanding of the audience. [informative speaking, informative speech]

speaking to persuade

Speech that focuses on changing beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors of the listeners. [persuasive speaking, persuasive speech]

specific purpose statement

This is a concise, single-sentence phrase that states precisely what the speaker hopes to accomplish in their speech.

speech of acceptance

This speech is delivered by the recipient of an award or honor.

speech of dedication

This speech is given when a new structure is opened to the public.

speech of farewell

This speech is given by someone who is leaving a position, a group, or a location.

speech of introduction

This brief speech provides the audience with a guest speaker's background and prepares them for the upcoming presentation.

speech of presentation

This speech is given to accompany a prize, award, or honor.

speech to ensure goodwill

This speech is an attempt by an organization or person to get an audience to view them more favorably.

speech for public relation

This speech is delivered specifically to enhance and build up the public image of the speaker or the organization they represent.

speech of justification

This speech is given to defend or explain why certain actions were taken, or will be taken, to show that the behavior was appropriate.

statistics

These are numerical data used to summarize large amounts of information or to show trends.

summarizing

This practice involves condensing a large amount of material into a much shorter, high-level overview that captures only the main points.

systematic desensitization

This involves incremental exposure to speaking tasks while practicing relaxation techniques.

testimony

This refers to personal or expert accounts used to provide a specific perspective on a topic.

thesis statement

This is a single, declarative sentence that encapsulates the central message of your speech. [thesis]

time-oriented

These listeners focus on efficiency and time limits. They value brevity and get frustrated by long-winded stories.

toast

This is a very brief speech designed to congratulate, express appreciation, or remember someone. It usually ends with the audience raising their glasses in unison.

trait anxiety

This is a form of communication apprehension defined as the personality trait of experiencing anxiety regarding any communication transaction.

transition

This is a phrase or sentence that indicates a speaker is moving from one main point to another by summarizing the previous point and previewing the next.

uniformity

This principle requires the consistent use of grammatical structure and formatting throughout an outline.

variety

This element of language is the intentional use of different types of words, sentence lengths, and rhetorical devices to keep the audience's attention.

visualization

This is when a speaker imagines that they are successful in delivering a speech and is characterized by positive self-talk.

vivid language

This is the use of specific, sensory-driven words to create mental images or word pictures that help the audience visualize the speaker's ideas.

vocalics

This is the speaker's use of their voice, including qualities such as pauses, vocal variety (volume, rate, and pitch), and correct pronunciation.

working outline

This outline serves as a rough map used to organize your ideas in the planning stage.