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COMM101 Study Guide

Unit 1: The Speech Communication Process

1a. Identify the three most common types of public speaking

  • What are the three most common types of public speaking?
  • What makes informative speaking different from persuasive speaking?
  • What are examples of each of the three common types of public speaking?

The three most common types of public speaking include speaking to inform, speaking to persuade, and speaking to entertain.

Informative speaking (speaking to inform) focuses on expanding the audience's knowledge and understanding in a fair and balanced way. An example of an informative speech includes presenting the history of the internet.

Persuasive speaking (speaking to persuade) focuses on changing listeners' beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. An example of a persuasive speech includes one in which you argue that college athletes should be paid.

Speaking to entertain uses humor or emotion to convey a theme while delivering a message. An example of a speech intended to entertain is a toast at your parents' anniversary celebration. Identifying the type of speech you are preparing early in the assignment process will ensure alignment of your research and organizational tasks in the speech preparation process.

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1b. Apply the dialogical theory of public speaking

  • What is the dialogical theory of public speaking?
  • What are the three principles of the dialogical theory?
  • What are some examples of the application of the three principles of dialogical theory?

The dialogical theory of public speaking posits that public speaking should be viewed as a dialogue between the speaker and the listeners, even though the listeners often have limited feedback. The three principles that the dialogical theory is built on are:

  1. Dialogue is more natural than monologue
  2. Meanings are in people, not words
  3. Contexts and social situations affect perceived meanings

Here are some examples of these principles in action. If you are giving a speech and audience members are nodding in agreement. Those nonverbal cues of nodding heads are a form of feedback that creates a dialogue between you and your audience.

As speakers, we must be mindful that the language that we use could be interpreted differently by different people. So we need to choose our words wisely to avoid confusion. As we consider context and social situations, we might consider how the time of day or the news of the day may affect how our message is received. If you give a speech at lunch time, your audience may be too distracted by their hunger to attend to your message. The dialogical theory encourages speakers to view public speaking as a two-way form of communication with limited feedback from the receivers. By being mindful of our audience during preparation and delivery, we can improve how our message is received and acted upon.

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1c. Use the ethics pyramid to evaluate the ethical choices of a public speaker or listener

  • What are the three levels of the ethics pyramid?
  • How can a public speaker use the ethics pyramid when preparing their speech?
  • How can a listener apply the ethics pyramid to evaluate a speaker's message?

The ethics pyramid is a structured approach to evaluating the ethical content of messages. The model is used to evaluate communication through three levels: intent (the base), means (the middle), and ends (the top). Intent is the foundation for determining ethical behavior. Means are the behaviors used to achieve a goal. Ends are the desired outcomes or results.

A speaker uses the pyramid as a preparatory framework to ensure their message is ethically sound from the ground up – intent, means, and ends. The speaker begins by examining their underlying purpose. They must ask, "Is my goal to inform honestly or to influence or coerce?" For example, a student speaking on financial aid should aim to help classmates, not shame those in financial need. Then the speaker evaluates the tools and behaviors they might use to deliver the message. This involves choosing good means, such as using accurate research and fair language, over bad means, such as using distorted statistics or name-calling to win an argument. Finally, the speaker considers the potential outcomes of the speech for both themselves and the audience. An ethical speaker strives for results that are beneficial or at least not harmful to listeners, even if those results also serve the speaker's own goals.

As listeners, we apply the pyramid as an evaluative tool to critically analyze the message a speaker delivers – from intent to means to ends. Before forming a judgment, an ethical listener starts with the intention of being open-minded and letting the speaker make their case. They look for signs of the speaker's true purpose, such as whether the speaker is providing balanced information or appears to have a hidden agenda. Then the listener analyzes the speaker's methods. For instance, they might check whether the speaker cited their sources or used emotional manipulation through altered images or shocking stories. Finally, the listener weighs the proposed outcome. They ask themselves, "Who benefits from this message?" and "Would I approve of this behavior if the roles were reversed?"

Applying the ethics pyramid ensures ethics are considered at each stage of the communication process, both as a speaker and a listener.

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1d. List some physiological symptoms of communication apprehension

Communication apprehension is the fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with another person or group, such as in public speaking. Fear of public speaking is a very common fear among people. The physiological symptoms of communication apprehension are the body's "fight-or-flight" response to perceived social threats, which can cause physical sensations such as a pounding heart, rapid breathing, shaking, sweating, a dry mouth, a quivering voice, rapid speech, and nausea. Speakers often feel these symptoms are obvious to everyone, even though they are usually invisible to the audience. These reactions represent a natural physical response to adrenaline that prepares the body for action despite the stillness required in public speaking. Identifying these symptoms as physical reactions to adrenaline can help you reframe them as excitement rather than fear.

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1e. Describe the four types of communication apprehension

The four types of communication apprehension include trait anxiety, context anxiety, audience anxiety, and situational anxiety.

Trait anxiety defines communication apprehension as a personality trait. Regardless of what situation you are in – speaking to a small group of friends or in front of a classroom of peers, you experience anxiety regarding the communication transaction.

Context anxiety is defined by the type of setting where a person is speaking. You might be comfortable speaking with groups of friends, but when prompted to speak at a formal gathering, you may feel anxious.

Audience anxiety is associated with who you are speaking to, who is in the audience. We might experience audience anxiety if we are required to speak to an audience of experts or authority figures, like at a board meeting.

Situational anxiety occurs when we are confronted by a unique combination of factors and is generated by the audience, time, and context. For example, let's say you are not normally anxious about public speaking, until you have to make a speech of introduction about your boss at a large international conference just before lunchtime; you may feel more anxious about making that speech due to some contributing factors – impressing your boss, the size of the audience, and your perception of the hungry audience.

Understanding your specific communication anxiety type allows you to apply more targeted coping strategies.

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1f. Select effective techniques for coping with anxiety and stress before and during a presentation

  • What is cognitive restructuring?
  • How does visualization help with anxiety and stress related to making a presentation?
  • What is systematic desensitization?
  • What are some during-speech techniques for coping with anxiety?

Four effective techniques for coping with anxiety and stress related to making a public presentation include cognitive restructuring, visualization, systematic desensitization, and during-speech techniques.

Simply put, cognitive restructuring involves replacing negative thoughts with positive ones. You might think of it as positive self-talk. An example would be pushing negative thoughts of failure with positive ones about how well you are going to do in your presentation.

Visualization means imagining yourself delivering your speech successfully. By doing so, you train your brain to see a successful outcome, thus reducing the fear of the unknown.

Systematic desensitization involves incremental exposure to speaking tasks while practicing relaxation techniques. An example of this would be watching others engage in public speaking, then preparing your speech materials, practicing your speech in a mirror with yourself, then practicing your speech with a small group of friends, before making your formal presentation in your speech classroom.

During-speech techniques include relaxation strategies you can use during your presentation to reduce anxiety. They include simple acts like taking a deep breath between statements, pausing to drink a few sips of water, practicing supporting gestures, and focusing on the audience's needs rather than your self-evaluation. Including positive reminders in your speaking notes can also help you during your presentation.

Managing anxiety is a combination of mental preparation and physical regulation. Practicing these techniques will help you reduce your stress and anxiety associated with public speaking.

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Unit 1 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

  • audience anxiety
  • cognitive restructuring
  • communication apprehension
  • context anxiety
  • dialogical theory of public speaking
  • during-speech techniques
  • ends
  • ethics pyramid
  • intent
  • means
  • situational anxiety
  • speaking to entertain
  • speaking to inform
  • speaking to persuade
  • systematic desensitization
  • trait anxiety
  • visualization
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